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THE PS YCHOLO GY 

OF 

MANAGEMENT 



3 r* 

THE PSYCHOLOGY 

OF 

MANAGEMENT 

The Function of the Mind in Determining, 

Teaching and Installing Methods 

of Least Waste 

BY 

L. M. GILBRETH, M. L. 



"flew U?orft 
STURGIS & WALTON 
COMPANY 

1914 



G 65 



Copyright, 1914, 
STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1014 



MAR 26 1314 



©CU3 6 945 7 



TO MY 
FATHER AND MOTHER 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I page 

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY 

OF MANAGEMENT I 

Definition of Psychology of Management — Im- 
portance of the Subject — Purpose of this Book 
— Definition of Management — The Three Types 
of Management — Possible Psychological Studies 
of Management — Plan of Psychological Study 
Here Used — Underlying Ideas or Divisions of 
Scientific Management — Outline of Method of In- 
vestigation — Conclusions to be Reached. 

CHAPTER II 

INDIVIDUALITY 21 

Definition of Individuality — Place of Individu- 
ality in Psychology — Individuality Under Tradi- 
tional Management — Individuality Under Transi- 
tory Management — > Individuality Under Scientific 
Management — Selection of Workers — Separat- 
ing Output — Recording Output Separately — In- 
dividual Tasks — Individual Instruction Cards — 
Individual Teaching — Individual Incentives — 
Individual Welfare — Summary: (a) Effect of 
Individuality upon Work; (b) Effect of Individ- 
uality upon Worker. 

CHAPTER III 

FUNCTIONALIZATION 5 2 

Definition of Functionalization — Psychologic- 
al Use of Functionalization — Functionalization 
in Traditional Management — Functionalization 
Under Transitory Management — Functionaliza- 
tion Under Scientific Management — Separating 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

the Planning From the Performing — Functional- 
ized Foremanship — The Function of Order of 
Work and Route Clerk — The Function of In- 
struction Card Clerk — 'The Function of Time and 
Cost Clerk — The Function of Disciplinarian — 
The Function of Gang Boss — The Function of 
Speed Boss — The Function of Repair Boss — 
The Function of Inspector — Functionalizing the 
Worker — Functionalizing the Work Itself — 
Summary: (a) Effect of Functionalization upon 
the Work; (b) Effect of Functionalization upon 
the Worker. 

CHAPTER IV 

MEASUREMENT 90 

Definition of Measurement — Importance of 
Measurement in Psychology — Relation of Meas- 
urement in Psychology to Measurement in Man- 
agement — Importance of Measurement in Man- 
agement — Measurement in Traditional Manage- 
ment — • Measurement in Transitory Management 

— Measurement in Scientific Management — 
Qualifications of the Observer — Methods of 
Observation — 'Definitions of Motion Study and 
Time Study — Methods of Motion Study and 
Time Study — Summary: (a) Effect of Meas- 
urement on the Work; (b) Effect of Measurement 
on the Worker; (c) Future Results to be Ex- 
pected; (d) First Step Toward Obtaining These 
Results. 

CHAPTER V 

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS I23 

Definition of Analysis — Definition of Synthesis 

— Use of Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology 

— Importance of Analysis and Synthesis in Man- 
agement — Place in Traditional Management — 
Place in Transitory Management — Place in 
Scientific Management — The Work of the Analyst 

— Determining Factor in Amount of Analysis — 
Field of Pyschology in Analysis — Qualifications 
of an Analyst — Worker's Interest in Analysis — 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The Work of the Synthesist — Results of Syn- 
thesist's Work — The Task — Discussion of the 
Name " Task "— Definition of " Task " in Scien- 
tific Management — Field of Application of the 
Task Idea — Qualifications of the Synthesist — 
Summary: (a) Effect of Analysis and Synthesis 
on the Work; (b) Effect of Analysis and Syn- 
thesis on the Worker. 

CHAPTER VI 

STANDARDIZATION 1 39 

Definition of Standardization — Relation of the 
Standard to the Task and the Incentive — Rela- 
tion of the Standard to Psychology — Purpose of 
Standardization — Standardization Under Tradi- 
tional Management — Standarization Under Tran- 
sitory Management — Value of Systems — 
Standardization Under Scientific Management 

— Relation of Standard to Measurement — Scope 
of Standardization Under Scientific Management 

— Permanence of Results — Needs of Standard- 
ization Likened to Needs in Field of Spelling — ■ 
Standard Nomenclature — Advantages of Mne- 
monic Symbols — Standard Phraseology — The 
Standard Man — Standard Means of Conveying 
Information — Definition of the Instruction Card 

— Detailed Description of the Instruction Card — 
Value of Standard Surroundings — Necessity for 
Proper Placing of the Worker — Standard Equip- 
ment — Standard Tools and Devices — Standard 
Clothing — Standard Methods — Rest from Fa- 
tigue — Standardization of Work with Animals — 
Standard Quality — Standard " Method of At- 
tack" — -Summary: (a) Effect of Standardiza- 
tion on the Work; (b) Effect of Standardization 
on the Worker; (c) Progress of Standardization 
Assured. 

CHAPTER VII 

RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 1 83 

Definition of Record — Records Under Tradi- 
tional Management — Records Under Transitory 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Management — Records Under Scientific Manage- 
ment — Criterion of Records — Records of Work 
and Workers — Records of Initiative — Records 
of Good Behavior — Records of Achievement — 
Records of " Exceptions " — Posting of Records 

— Summary of Results of Records to Work and 
Worker — Definition of Programme — Pro- 
grammes Under Traditional Management — - Pro- 
grammes Under Transitory Management — Pro- 
grammes Under Scientific Management — 
Programmes and Routing — Possibility of Pro- 
phecy Under Scientific Management — Summary 
of Results of Programmes to Work and Worker 

— Relation Between Records and Programmes — 
Types of Records and Programmes — Interrela- 
tion of Types — Illustrations of Complexity of 
Relations — Possibilities of Eliminating Waste — 
Derivation of the Programme — Summary: (a) 
Effect of Relations Between Records and Pro- 
grammes on the Work ; (b) Effect on the Worker. 

CHAPTER VIII 

TEACHING 208 

Definition of Teaching — Teaching Under Tra- 
ditional Management — Faults Due to Lack of 
Standards — Teaching Under Transitory Manage- 
agement — Teaching Under Scientific Management 

— Importance of Teaching — Conforming of 
Teaching to Psychological Laws — Conservation 
of Valuable Elements of Traditional and Transi- 
tory Management — Scope of Teaching — Source 
of Teaching — Methods of Teaching — Instruc- 
tion Cards as Teachers — Systems as Teachers — 
Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs — 
Functional Foremen as Teachers — Object Les- 
sons as Teachers — Training the Senses — Form- 
ing Good Habits — Importance of Teaching 
Right Motions First — Stimulating Attention — 
Forming Associations — Educating the Memory 

— Cultivating the Imagination — Developing the 
Judgment — Utilizing Suggestion — Utilizing Na- 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

tive Reactions — Developing the Will — Adapta- 
bility of Teaching — Provision of Places for 
Teaching — Measurement of Teaching — Rela- 
tion of Teaching to Academic Training and Voca- 
tional Guidance — Summary: (a) Result of 
Teaching in the Work; (b) Result of Teaching to 
the Worker; (c) Results to be Expected in the 
Future. 

CHAPTER IX 

INCENTIVES 271 

Definition of Incentive — Importance of Incen- 
tives — Direct and Indirect Incentives — < Defini- 
tion of Reward — Definition of Punishment — 
Nature of Direct Incentives — The Reward Under 
Traditional Management — The Punishment 
Under Traditional Management — The Direct 
Incentive Under Traditional Management — Incen- 
tives Under Transitory Management — Rewards 
Under Scientific Management — Promotion and 
Pay — • Relation of Wages and Bonus — Day 
Work — Piece Work — Task Wage — Gain Shar- 
ing — Premium Plan — Profit Snaring — Differ- 
ential Rate Piece — ■ Task Work with a Bonus — 
Differential Bonus — Three Rate — Three Rate 
with Increased Rate — Other Rewards — Nega- 
tive and Positive Punishments — Fines and Their 
Disposal — Assignment to Less Pleasant Work — 
Discharge and Its Elimination — Use of Direct 
Incentives — Summary: (a) Effect of Incen- 
tives upon the Work; (b) Effect of Incentives 
upon the Worker. 

CHAPTER X 

WELFARE 3II 

Definition of Welfare — " Welfare " and " Wel- 
fare Work " — Welfare Under Traditional Man- 
agement — Welfare Work Under Traditional 
Management — Welfare Under Transitory Man- 
agement — Welfare Work Under Transitory Man- 
agement — Welfare Under Scientific Management 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

— Physical Improvement — Mental Development 
— • Moral Development — Interrelation of Physical, 
Mental and Moral Development — Welfare Work 
Under Scientific Management — Summary: (a) 
Result of Welfare to the Work; (b) Result of 
Welfare to the Worker. 
index 333 



The Psychology of Management 

CHAPTER I 
DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF 

Definition of Psychology of Management. — The 

Psychology of Management, as here used, means, — 
the effect of the mind that is directing work upon that 
work which is directed, and the effect of this undi- 
rected and directed work upon the mind of the 
worker. 

Importance of the Subject. — Before defining the 
terms that will be used more in detail, and outlining 
the method of treatment to be followed, it is well to 
consider the importance of the subject matter of 
this book, for upon the reader's interest in the subject, 
and his desire, from the outset, to follow what is 
said, and to respond to it, rests a large part of the 
value of this book. 

Value of Psychology. — First of all, then, what is 
there in the subject of psychology to demand the at- 
tention of the manager? 

Psychology, in the popular phrase, is " the study of 
the mind." It has for years been included in the 
training of all teachers, and has been one of the first 
steps for the student of philosophy; but it has not, 
usually, been included among the studies of the young 



2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

scientific or engineering student, or of any students in 
other lines than Philosophy and Education. This, not 
because its value as a " culture subject " was not un- 
derstood, but because the course of the average 
student is so crowded with technical preparation nec- 
essary to his life work, and because the practical value 
of psychology has not been recognized. It is well 
recognized that the teacher must understand the 
working of the mind in order best to impart his in- 
formation in that way that will enable the student 
to grasp it most readily. It was not recognized that 
every man going out into the world needs all the 
knowledge that he can get as to the working of the 
human mind in order not only to give but to receive 
information with the least waste and expenditure of 
energy, nor was it recognized that in the industrial, as 
well as the academic world, almost every man is a 
teacher. 

Value of Management. — The second question de- 
manding attention is; — Of what value is the study 
of management? 

The study of management has been omitted from 
the student's training until comparatively recently, 
for a very different reason than was psychology. It 
was never doubted that a knowledge of management 
would be of great value to anyone and everyone, and 
many were the queer schemes for obtaining that 
knowledge after graduation. It was doubted that 
management could be studied otherwise than by ob- 
servation and practice. 1 Few teachers, if any, be- 
lieved in the existence, or possibility, of a teaching 

1 Charles Babbage, Economy of Manufacturers. Preface, p. v. 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 3 

science of management. Management was assumed 
by many to be an art, by even more it was thought 
to be a divinely bestowed gift or talent, rather than 
an acquired accomplishment. It was common be- 
lief that one could learn to manage only by going 
out on the work and watching other managers, or 
by trying to manage, and not by studying about man- 
agement in a class room or in a text book; that watch- 
ing a good manager might help one, but no one could 
hope really to succeed who had not " the knack born 
in him." 

With the advent of " Scientific Management," and 
its demonstration that the best management is 
founded on laws that have been determined, and can 
be taught, the study of management in the class 
room as well as on the work became possible and 
actual. 2 

Value of Psychology of Management. — Third, we 
must consider the value of the study of the psychology 
of management. 3 

This question, like the one that precedes it, is 
answered by Scientific Management. It has dem- 
onstrated that the emphasis in successful manage- 
ment lies on the man, not on the work; that efficiency 
is best secured by placing the emphasis on the man, 
and modifying the equipment, materials and methods 
to make the most of the man. It has, further, rec- 
ognized that the man's mind is a controlling fac- 
tor in his efficiency, and has, by teaching, enabled 

2 Halbert P. Gillette, Paper No. 1, American Society of Engineer- 
ing Contractors. 

3 Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management, p. 5. 



4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

the man to make the most of his powers. 4 In or- 
der to understand this teaching element that is such 
a large part of management, a knowledge of psy- 
chology is imperative; and this study of psychology, 
as it applies to the work of the manager or the man- 
aged, is exactly what the "psychology of manage- 
ment " is. 

Five Indications of This Value. — In order to 
realize the importance of the psychology of manage- 
ment it is necessary to consider the following five 
points : — 

i. Management is a life study of every man who 
works with other men. He must either manage, or 
be managed, or both ; in any case, he can never work 
to best advantage until he understands both the 
psychological and managerial laws by which he gov- 
erns or is governed. 

2. A knowledge of the underlying laws of man- 
agement is the most important asset that one can 
carry with him into his life work, even though he 
will never manage any but himself. It is useful, 
practical, commercially valuable. 

3. This knowledge is to be had now. The men 
who have it are ready and glad to impart it to all 
who are interested and who will pass it on. 5 The 
text books are at hand now. The opportunities for 
practical experience in Scientific Management will 
meet all demands as fast as they are made. 

4. The psychology of, that is, the mind's place 

*F. B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 98. 

6 F. W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 144. 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 5 

in management is only one part, element or variable 
of management; one of numerous, almost number- 
less, variables. 

5. It is a division well fitted to occupy the atten- 
tion of the beginner, as well as the more experienced, 
because it is a most excellent place to start the study 
of management. A careful study of the relations of 
psychology to management should develop in the 
student a method of attack in learning his selected 
life work that should help him to grasp quickly the 
orderly array of facts that the other variables, as 
treated by the great managers, bring to him. 

Purpose of This Book. — It is scarcely necessary to 
mention that this book can hope to do little more 
than arouse an interest in the subject and point the 
way to the detailed books where such an interest 
can be more deeply aroused and more fully satis- 
fied. 

What This Book Will Not Do.— It is not the pur- 
pose of this book to give an exhaustive treatment of 
psychology. Neither is it possible in this book to 
attempt to give a detailed account of management in 
general, or of the Taylor plan of " Scientific Manage- 
ment " so-called, in particular. All of the literature 
on the subject has been carefully studied and re- 
viewed for the purpose of writing this book, — not 
only what is in print, but considerable that is as yet 
in manuscript. No statement has been made that 
is not along the line of the accepted thought and 
standardized practice of the authorities. The foot 
notes have been prepared with great care. By read- 



6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ing the references there given one can verify state- 
ments in the text, and can also, if he desires, inform 
himself at length on any branch of the subject that 
especially interests him. 

What This Book Will Do. — This book aims not so 
much to instruct as to arouse an interest in its sub- 
ject, and to point the way whence instruction comes. 
If it can serve as an introduction to psychology and 
to management, can suggest the relation of these two 
fields of inquiries and can ultimately enroll its readers 
as investigators in a resultant great field of inquiry, 
it will have accomplished its aim. 

Definition of Management. — To discuss this sub- 
ject more in detail — 

First: What is " Management "? 

" Management," as defined by the Century Dic- 
tionary, is " the art of managing by direction or 
regulation." 

Successful management of the old type was an art 
based on no measurement. Scientific Management 
is an art based upon a science, — upon laws deducted 
from measurement. Management continues to be 
what it has always been, — the art of directing ac- 
tivity. 

Change in the Accepted Meaning. — " Manage- 
ment," until recent years, and the emphasis placed 
on Scientific Management was undoubtedly as- 
sociated, in the average mind, with the managing 
part of the organization only, neglecting that vital 
part — the best interests of the managed, almost en- 
tirely. Since we have come to realize that manage- 
ment signifies the relationship between the managing 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 7 

and the managed in doing work, a new realization of 
its importance has come about. 6 

Inadequacy of the Terms Used. — It is unfortunate 
that the English language is so poor in synonyms in 
this field that the same word must have two such 
different and conflicting meanings, for, though the 
new definition of management be accepted, the 
" Fringe " of associations that belong to the old are 
apt to remain. 7 The thoughts of " knack, aptitude, 
tact, adroitness," — not to speak of the less desirable 
" Brute Force," " shrewdness, subtlety, cunning, arti- 
fice, deceit, duplicity," of the older idea of manage- 
ment remain in the background of the mind and make 
it difficult, even when one is convinced that manage- 
ment is a science, to think and act as if it were. 

It must be noticed and constantly remembered that 
one of the greatest difficulties to overcome in study- 
ing management and its development is the meaning 
of the terms used. It is most unfortunate that the 
new ideas have been forced to content themselves 
with old forms as best they may. 

Psychological Interest of the Terms. — Psychology 
could ask no more interesting subject than a study 
of the mental processes that lie back of many of 
these terms. It is most unfortunate for the obtain- 
ing of clearness, that new terms were not invented 
for the new ideas. There is, however, an excellent 
reason for using the old terms. By their use it is 
emphasized that the new thought is a logical out- 

6 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para, 16, Am. Soc. M. E., 
Paper No. 1003. 
7 William James, Psychology, Vol. I, p. 258. 



8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

growth of the old, and experience has proved that 
this close relationship to established ideas is a pow- 
erful argument for the new science; but such terms 
as "task," "foreman," "speed boss," "piece-rate" 
and " bonus," as used in the science of management, 
suffer from misunderstanding caused by old and now 
false associations. Furthermore, in order to com- 
pare old and new interpretations of the ideas of man- 
agement, the older terms of management should have 
their traditional meanings only. The two sets of 
meanings are a source of endless confusion, unwar- 
ranted prejudice, and worse. This is well recognized 
by the authorities on Management. 

The Three Types of Management. — We note this 
inadequacy of terms again when we discuss the vari- 
ous types of Management. 

We may divide all management into three types — 
(i) Traditional 

(2) Transitory 

(3) Scientific, or measured functional. 8 
Traditional Management, the first, has been vari- 
ously called " Military," " Driver," the " Marquis of 
Queensberry type," " Initiative and Incentive Man- 
agement," as well as " Traditional " management. 

Definition of the First Type. — In the first type, 
the power of managing lies, theoretically at least, in 
the hands of one man, a capable " all-around " man- 
ager. The line of authority and of responsibility is 
clear, fixed and single. Each man comes in direct 
contact with but one man above him. A man may 
or may not manage more than one man beneath him, 

8 F. B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System, Chap. I. 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 9 

but, however this may be, he is managed by but one 
man above him. 

Preferable Name for the First Type. — The names 
" Traditional," or " Initiative and Incentive," are the 
preferable titles for this form of management. It is 
true they lack in specificness, but the other names, 
while aiming to be descriptive, really emphasize one 
feature only, and in some cases with unfortunate re- 
sults. 

The Name "Military" Inadvisable.— The direct 
line of authority suggested the name " Military," 9 
and at the time of the adoption of that name it was 
probably appropriate as well as complimentary. 10 
Appropriate in the respect referred to only, for the 
old type of management varied so widely in its mani- 
festations that the comparison to the procedure of 
the Army was most inaccurate. " Military " has al- 
ways been a synonym for " systematized," " orderly," 
" definite," while the old type of management was 
more often quite the opposite of the meaning of all 
these terms. The term " Military Management " 
though often used in an uncomplimentary sense 
would, today, if understood, be more complimentary 
than ever it was in the past. The introduction of 
various features of Scientific Management into the 
Army and Navy, — and such features are being in- 
corporated steadily and constantly, — is raising the 
standard of management there to a high degree. 

9 Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5 of the Carnegie Foun- 
dation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 17. 

10 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 234, Am. Soc. M. E., 
Paper No. 1003. 



io THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

This but renders the name " Military " Management 
for the old type more inaccurate and misleading. 

It is plain that the stirring associations of the 
word " military " make its use for the old type, by ad- 
vocates of the old type, a weapon against Scientific 
Management that only the careful thinker can turn 
aside. 

The Names " Driver " and " Marquis of Queens- 
berry " Unfortunate. — The name " Driver " suggests 
an opposition between the managers and the men, 
an opposition which the term " Marquis of Queens- 
berry " emphasizes. This term " Marquis of Queens- 
berry " has been given to that management which 
is thought of as a mental and physical contest, waged 
" according to the rules of the game." These two 
names are most valuable pictorially, or in furnishing 
oratorical material. They are constant reminders of 
the constant desire of the managers to get all the 
work that is possible out of the men, but they are 
scarcely descriptive in any satisfactory sense, and the 
visions they summon, while they are perhaps definite, 
are certainly, for the inexperienced in management, 
inaccurate. In other words, they usually lead to 
imagination rather than to perception. 

The Name " Initiative and Incentive " Authorita- 
tive. — The term " Initiative and Incentive," is used 
by Dr. Taylor, and is fully described by him. 11 The 
words themselves suggest, truly, that he gives the 
old form of management its due. He does more than 
this. He points out in his definition of the terms the 
likenesses between the old and new forms. 

11 F. W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, pp. 33-38. 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE n 

The Name " Traditional " Brief and Descriptive. — 

The only excuses for the term " Traditional," since 
Dr. Taylor's term is available, are its brevity and 
its descriptiveness. The fact that it is indefinite is 
really no fault in it, as the subject it describes is 
equally indefinite. The " fringe " 12 of this word is 
especially good. It calls up ideas of information 
handed down from generation to generation orally, 
the only way of teaching under the old type of man- 
agement. It recalls the idea of the inaccurate per- 
petuation of unthinking custom, and the " myth " ele- 
ment always present in tradition, — again undeniable 
accusations against the old type of management. 
The fundamental idea of the tradition, that it is oral, 
is the essence of the difference of the old type of man- 
agement from science, or even system, which must 
be written. 

It is not necessary to make more definite here the 
content of this oldest type of management, rather be- 
ing satisfied with the extent, and accepting for work- 
ing use the name " Traditional " with the generally 
accepted definition of that name. 

Definition of the Second Type of Management. — 
The second type of management is called " Interim " 
or " Transitory " management. It includes all man- 
agement that is consciously passing into Scientific 
Management and embraces all stages, from manage- 
ment that has incorporated one scientifically derived 
principle, to management that has adopted all but 
one such principle. 

Preferable Name for Second Type of Manage- 

12 The idea called to mind by the use of a given word. — Ed. 



12 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ment. — Perhaps the name " Transitory " is slightly 
preferable in that, though the element of temporari- 
ness is present in both words, it is more strongly em- 
phasized in the latter. The usual habit of associating 
with it the ideas of " fleeting, evanescent, ephemeral, 
momentary, short-lived," may have an influence on 
hastening the completion of the installing of Scien- 
tific Management. 

Definition of the Third Type of Management. — 
The third form of management is called " Ultimate," 
" measured Functional," or " Scientific, " manage- 
ment, and might also be called, — but for the objec- 
tion of Dr. Taylor, the " Taylor Plan of Manage- 
ment." This differs from the first two types men- 
tioned in that it is a definite plan of management syn- 
thesized from scientific analysis of the data of 
management. In other words, Scientific Manage- 
ment is that management which is a science, i. e., 
which operates according to known, formulated, and 
applied laws. 13 

Preferable Name of the Third Type of Manage- 
ment. — The name " Ultimate " has, especially to the 
person operating under the transitory stage, all the 
charm and inspiration of a goal. It has all the in- 
centives to accomplishment of a clearly circumscribed 
task. Its very definiteness makes it seem possible 
of attainment. It is a great satisfaction to one who, 
during a lifetime of managing effort, has tried one 
offered improvement after another to be convinced 
that he has found the right road at last. The name 

13 Henry R. Towne, Introduction to Shop Management. (Harper 
& Bros.) 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 13 

is, perhaps, of greatest value in attracting the atten- 
tion of the uninformed and, as the possibilities of the 
subject can fulfill the most exacting demands, the 
attention once secured can be held. 

The name " measured functional " is the most de- 
scriptive, but demands the most explanation. The 
principle of functionalization is one of the underlying, 
fundamental principles of Scientific Management. It 
is not as necessary to stop to define it here, as it is 
necessary to discuss the definition, the principle, and 
the underlying psychology, at length later. 

The name " scientific " while in some respects not 
as appropriate as are any of the other names, has al- 
ready received the stamp of popular approval. In 
derivation it is beyond criticism. It also describes 
exactly, as has been said, the difference between the 
older forms of management and the new. Even its 
" fringe " of association is, or at least was when first 
used, all that could be desired; but the name is, un- 
fortunately, occasionally used indiscriminately for 
any sort of system and for schemes of operation that 
are not based on time study. It has gradually be- 
come identified more or less closely with 

1. the Taylor Plan of Management 

2. what we have defined as the " Transitory " plan 
of management 

3. management which not only is not striving to 
be scientific, but which confounds " science " with 
" system." Both its advocates and opponents have 
been guilty of misuse of the word. Still, in spite of 
this, the very fact that the word has had a wide use. 
that it has become habitual to think of the new type 



i 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of management as " Scientific," makes its choice ad- 
visable. We shall use it, but restrict its content. 
With us " Scientific Management " is used to mean 
the complete Taylor plan of management, with no 
modifications and no deviations. 

We may summarize by saying that: 

i. the popular name is Scientific Management, 

2. the inspiring name is Ultimate management, 

3. the descriptive name is measured Functional 
management, 

4. the distinctive name is the Taylor Plan of Man- 
agement. 

For the purpose of this book, Scientific Manage- 
ment is, then, the most appropriate name. Through 
its use, the reader is enabled to utilize all his associa- 
tions, and through his study he is able to restrict and 
order the content of the term. 

Relationship Between the Three Types of Manage- 
ment. — From the foregoing definitions and descrip- 
tions it will be clear that the three types of manage- 
ment are closely related. Three of the names given 
bring out this relationship most clearly. These are 
Traditional (i. e., Primitive), Interim, and Ultimate. 
These show, also, that the relationship is genetic, i. e., 
that the second form grows out of the first, but passes 
through to the third. The growth is evolutional. 

Under the first type, or in the first stage of man- 
agement, the laws or principles underlying right man- 
agement are usually unknown, hence disregarded. 

In the second stage, the laws are known and in- 
stalled as fast as functional foremen can be taught 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 15 

their new duties and the resistances of human nature 
can be overcome. 14 

In the third stage the managing is operated in ac- 
cordance with the recognized laws of management. 

Psychological Significance of This Relationship. — 
The importance of the knowledge and of the desire 
for it can scarcely be overestimated. This again 
makes plain the value of the psychological study of 
management. 

Possible Psychological Studies of Management. — 
In making this psychological study of management, 
it would be possible to take up the three types as de- 
fined above, separately and in order, and to discuss 
the place of the mind in each, at length; but such a 
method would not only result in needless repetition, 
but also in most difficult comparisons when final re- 
sults were to be deduced and formulated. 

It would, again, be possible to take up the various 
elements or divisions of psychological study as de- 
termined by a consensus of psychologists, and to illus- 
trate each in turn from the three types of manage- 
ment ; but the results from any such method would 
be apt to seem unrelated and impractical, i. e., it 
would be a lengthy process to get results that would 
be of immediate, practical use in managing. 

Plan of Psychological Study Used Here. — It has, 
therefore, seemed best to base the discussion that is 
to follow upon arbitrary divisions of scientific man- 
agement, that is — 

14 F. W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 123. 
(Harper & Bros.) 



iS THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

i. To enumerate the underlying principles on 
which scientific management rests. 

2. To show in how far the other two types of man- 
agement vary from Scientific Management. 

3. To discuss the psychological aspect of each prin- 
ciple. 

Advantages of This Plan of Study. — In this way 
the reader can gain an idea of 

1. The relation of Scientific Management to the 
other types of management. 

2. The structure of Scientific Management. 

3. The relation between the various elements of 
Scientific Management. 

4. The psychology of management in general, and 
of the three types of management in particular. 

Underlying Ideas and Divisions of Scientific Man- 
agement. — These underlying ideas are grouped un- 
der nine divisions, as follows: — 

1. Individuality. 

2. Functionalization. 

3. Measurement. 

4. Analysis and Synthesis. 

5. Standardization. 

6. Records and Programmes. 

7. Teaching. 

8. Incentives. 

9. Welfare. 

It is here only necessary to enumerate these di- 
visions. Each will be made the subject of a chapter. 

Derivation of These Divisions. — These divisions 
lay no claim to being anything but underlying ideas 
of Scientific Management, that embrace varying num- 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 17 

bers of established elements that can easily be sub- 
jected to the scrutiny of psychological investigation. 

The discussion will be as little technical as is pos- 
sible, will take nothing for granted and will cite 
references at every step. This is a new field of in- 
vestigation, and the utmost care is necessary to avoid 
generalizing from insufficient data. 

Derivation of Scientific Management. — There has 
been much speculation as to the age and origin of 
Scientific Management. The results of this are in- 
teresting, but are not of enough practical value to be 
repeated here. Many ideas of Scientific Management 
can be traced back, more or less clearly and directly, 
to thinkers of the past; but the Science of Manage- 
ment, as such, was discovered, and the deduction of 
its laws, or " principles," made possible when Dr. 
Frederick W. Taylor discovered and applied Time 
Study. Having discovered this, he constructed 
from it and the other fundamental principles a com- 
plete whole. 

Mr. George lies in that most interesting and in- 
structive of books, " Inventors at Work," 15 has 
pointed out the importance, to development in any 
line of progress or science, of measuring devices and 
methods. Contemporaneous with, or previous to, 
the discovery of the device or method, must come the 
discovery or determination of the most profitable unit 
of measurement which will, of itself, best show the 
variations in efficiency from class. When Dr. Taylor 
discovered units of measurement for determining, 
prior to performance, the amount of any kind of 

15 Doubleday, Page & Co. 



i8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

work that a worker could do and the amount of rest 
he must have during the performance of that work, 
then, and not until then, did management become a 
science. On this hangs the science of management. 16 

Outline of Method of Investigation. — In the dis- 
cussion of each of the nine divisions of Scientific Man- 
agement, the following topics must be treated: 

i. Definition of the division and its underlying idea. 

2. Appearance and importance of the idea in Tra- 
ditional and Transitory Management. 

3. Appearance and importance of the idea in Scien- 
tific Management. 

4. Elements of Scientific Management which show 
the effects of the idea. 

5. Results of the idea upon work and workers. 
These topics will be discussed in such order as the 

particular division investigated demands. The psy- 
chological significance of the appearance or non-ap- 
pearance of the idea, and of the effect of the idea, 
will be noted. The results will be summarized at the 
close of each chapter, in order to furnish data for 
drawing conclusions at the close of the discussion. 

Conclusions to be Reached. — These conclusions 
will include the following: — 

1. " Scientific Management" is a science. 

2. It alone, of the Three Types of Management, is 
a science. 

3. Contrary to a widespread belief that Scientific 
Management kills individuality, it is built on the basic 

16 F. W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 137. 
(Harper & Bros.) 



DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 19 

principle of recognition of the individual, not only as 
an economic unit but also as a personality, with all 
the idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person. 

4. Scientific Management fosters individuality by 
functionalizing work. 

5. Measurement, in Scientific Management, is of 
ultimate units of subdivision. 

6. These measured ultimate units are combined 
into methods of least waste. 

7. Standardization under Scientific Management 
applies to all elements. 

8. The accurate records of Scientific Management 
make accurate programmes possible of fulfillment. 

9. Through the teaching of Scientific Manage- 
ment the management is unified and made self-per- 
petuating. 

10. The method of teaching of Scientific Manage- 
ment is a distinct and valuable contribution to Edu- 
cation. 

11. Incentives under Scientific Management not 
only stimulate but benefit the worker. 

12. It is for the ultimate as well as immediate wel- 
fare of the worker to work under Scientific Manage- 
ment. 

13. Scientific Management is applicable to all 
fields of activity, and to mental as well as physical 
work. 

14. Scientific Management is applicable to self- 
management as well as to managing others. 

15. It teaches men to cooperate with the manage- 
ment as well as to manage. 



so THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

16. It is a device capable of use by all. 

17. The psychological element of Scientific Man- 
agement is the most important element. 

18. Because Scientific Management is psychologic- 
ally right it is the ultimate form of management. 

19. This psychological study of Scientific Manage- 
ment emphasizes especially the teaching features. 

20. Scientific Management simultaneously 

a. increases output and wages and lowers costs. 

b. eliminates waste. 

c. turns unskilled labor into skilled. 

d. provides a system of self-perpetuating welfare. 

e. reduces the cost of living. 

f. bridges the gap between the college trained and 
the apprenticeship trained worker. 

g. forces capital and labor to cooperate and to 
promote industrial peace. 



CHAPTER II 
INDIVIDUALITY 

Definition of Individuality. — " An individual is a 
single thing, a being that is, or is regarded as, a 
unit. An individual is opposed to a crowd. In- 
dividual action is opposed to associate action. Indi- 
vidual interests are opposed to common or com- 
munity interests." These definitions give us some 
idea of the extent of individuality. Individuality is a 
particular or distinctive characteristic of an indi- 
vidual; "that quality or aggregate of qualities 
which distinguishes one person or thing from an- 
other, idiosyncrasy." This indicates the content. 

For our purpose, we may define the study of in- 
dividuality as a consideration of the individual as 
a unit with special characteristics. That it is a unit 
signifies that it is one of many and that it has like- 
ness to the many. That it has special characteristics 
shows that it is one of many, but different from the 
many. This consideration of individuality empha- 
sizes both the common element and the diverging 
characteristics. 

Individuality as Treated in This Chapter. — The 
recognition of individuality is the subject of this chap- 
ter. The utilization of this individuality in its devia- 

21 



22 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tion from class, is the subject of the chapter that fol- 
lows, Functionalization. 

Individuality as Considered by Psychology. — Psy- 
chology has not" always emphasized the importance 
of the individual as a unit for study. Prof. Ladd's 
definition of psychology, quoted and endorsed by 
Prof. James, is " the description and explanation of 
states of consciousness, as such." 1 " By states of 
consciousness," says James, " are meant such things 
as sensation, desires, emotions, cognitions, reason- 
ings, decisions, volitions, and the like." This puts 
the emphasis on such divisions of consciousness as, 
" attention," " interest," and " will." 

With the day of experimental psychology has come 
the importance of the individual self as a subject of 
study, 2 and psychology has come to be defined, as 
Calkins defines it, as a " science of the self as con- 
scious." 3 

We hear much in the talk of today of the " psychol- 
ogy of the crowd," the " psychology of the mob," and 
the " psychology of the type," etc., but the mind that 
is being measured, and from whose measurements the 
laws are being deduced and formulated is, at the pres- 
ent the individual mind. 4 

The psychology which interested itself particularly 
in studying such divisions of mental activity as at- 
tention, will, habit, etc., emphasizes more particularly 
the likenesses of minds. It is necessary to under- 

1 William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. I. 

2 Hugo Miinsterberg, American Problems, p. 34. 

3 Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 1. 

4 James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 14. 



INDIVIDUALITY 23 

stand thoroughly all of these likenesses before one 
can be sure what the differences, or idiosyncrasies, 
are, and how important they are, because, while the 
likenesses furnish the background, it is the differ- 
ences that are most often actually utilized by manage- 
ment. These must be determined in order to com- 
pute and set the proper individual task for the given 
man from standard data of the standard, or first-class 
man. 

In any study of the individual, the following facts 
must be noted: — 

1. The importance of the study of the individual, 
and the comparatively small amount of work that has 
as yet been done in that field. 

2. The difficulty of the study, and the necessity for 
great care, not only in the study itself, but in deducing 
laws from it. 

3. The necessity of considering any one individual 
trait as modified by all the other traits of the indi- 
vidual. 

4. The importance of the individual as distinct from 
the type. 

Many students are so interested in studying types 
and deducing laws which apply to types in general, 
that they lose sight of the fact that the individual is 
the basis of the study, — that individuality is that for 
which they must seek and for which they must con- 
stantly account. As Sully says, we must not em- 
phasize " typical developments in a new individual," 
at the expense of " typical development in a new in- 
dividual." 5 It is the fact that the development 
5 James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 577, 



24 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

occurs in an individual, and not that the development 
is typical, that we should emphasize. 

Individuality Seldom Recognized Under Tradi- 
tional Management. — - Under Traditional Manage- 
ment there was little or no systematized method for 
the recognition of individuality or individual fitness. 6 
The worker usually was, in the mind of the manager, 
one of a crowd, his only distinguishing mark being 
the amount of work which he was capable of perform- 
ing. 

Selecting Workers Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — In selecting men to do work, there was little 
or no attempt to study the individuals who applied for 
work. The matter of selection was more of a proc- 
ess of " guess work " than of exact measurement, and 
the highest form of test was considered to be that of 
having the man actually tried out by being given 
a chance at the work itself. There was not only a 
great waste of time on the work, because men unfitted 
to it could not turn it out so successfully, but there 
also was a waste of the worker, and many times a 
positive injury to the worker, by his being put at 
work which he was unfitted either to perform, to 
work at continuously, or both. 

In the most progressive type of Traditional Man- 
agement there was usually a feeling, however, that if 
the labor market offered even temporarily a greater 
supply than the work in hand demanded, it was wise 
to choose those men to do the work who were best 
fitted for it, or who were willing to work for less 
wages. It is surprising to find in the traditional type, 

6 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 52. 



INDIVIDUALITY 25 

even up to the present day, how often men were 
selected for their strength and physique, rather than 
for any special capabilities fitting them for working 
in, or at, the particular line of work to be done. 

Output Seldom Separated Under Traditional Man- 
agement. — Under Traditional Management especi- 
ally on day work the output of the men was not 
usually separated, nor was the output recorded 
separately, as can be done even with the work of 
gangs. 

Few Individual Tasks Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — Seldom, if ever, was an individual task set 
for a worker on day work, or piece work, and even if 
one were set, it was not scientifically determined. 
The men were simply set to work alone or in gangs, 
as the work demanded, and if the foreman was over- 
worked or lazy, allowed to take practically their own 
time to do the work. If, on the other hand, the 
foreman was a " good driver," the men might be 
pushed to their utmost limit of their individual un- 
directed speed, regardless of their welfare. 

Little Individual Teaching Under Traditional Man- 
agement. — Not having a clear idea either of the 
present fitness and the future possibilities of the 
worker, or the requirements of the work, no intel- 
ligent attempt could be made at efficient individual 
teaching. What teaching was done was in the form 
of directions for all, concerning the work in general, 
the directions being given by an overworked foreman, 
the holding of whose position often depended more 
upon whether his employer made money than upon 
the way his men were taught, or worked. 



26 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Seldom an Individual Reward Under Traditional 
Management. — As a typical example of disregard of 
individuality, the worker in the household may be 
cited, and especially the "general housework girl." 
Selected with no knowledge of her capabilities, and 
with little or no scientific or even systematized knowl- 
edge of the work that she is expected to do, there is 
little or no thought of a prescribed and definite task, 
no teaching specially adapted to the individual needs 
of the taught, and no reward in proportion to effi- 
ciency. 

Cause of These Lacks Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — The fault lies not in any desire of the man- 
agers to do poor or wasteful work, or to treat their 
workers unfairly, — but in a lack of knowledge and of 
accurate methods for obtaining, conserving and trans- 
mitting knowledge. Under Traditional Management 
no one individual knows precisely what is to be done. 
Such management seldom knows how work could 
best be done ; — never knows how much work each 
individual can do. 7 Understanding neither work nor 
workers, it can not adjust the one to the other so as 
to obtain least waste. Having no conception of the 
importance of accurate measurement, it has no 
thought of the individual as a unit. 

Individuality Recognized Under Transitory Man- 
agement. — Recognition of individuality is one of the 
principles first apparent under Transitory Manage- 
ment. 

This is apt to demonstrate itself first of all in caus- 
ing the outputs of the workers to " show up " sepa- 

7 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.) 



INDIVIDUALITY 27 

rately, rewarding these separated outputs, and reward- 
ing each worker for his individual output. 

Benefits of This Recognition. — The benefits of in- 
troducing these features first are that the worker, 
(1) seeing his individual output, is stimulated to 
measure it, and (2) receiving compensation in ac- 
cordance with his output, is satisfied; and (3) ob- 
serving that records are necessary to determine the 
amount of output and pay, is glad to have accurate 
measurement and the other features of Scientific Man- 
agement introduced. 

Individuality a Fundamental Principle of Scientific 
Management. — Under Scientific Management the 
individual is the unit to be measured. Functionaliza- 
tion is based upon utilizing the particular powers and 
special abilities of each man. Measurement is of 
the individual man and his work. Analysis and 
synthesis build up methods by which the individual 
can best do his work. Standards are of the work of 
an individual, a standard man, and the task is always 
for an individual, being that percentage of the 
standard man's task that the particular individual can 
do. Records are of individuals, and are made in 
order to show and reward individual effort. Specific 
individuals are taught those things that they, in- 
dividually, require. Incentives are individual both 
in the cases of rewards and punishments, and, finally, 
it is the welfare of the individual worker that is con- 
sidered, without the sacrifice of any for the good of 
the whole. 

Individuality Considered in Selecting Workers. — 
Under Scientific Management individuality is con- 



28 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

sidered in selecting workers as it could not be under 
either of the other two forms of management. This 
for several reasons: 

i. The work is more specialized, hence requires 
more carefully selected men. 

2. With standardized methods comes a knowledge 
to the managers of the qualifications of the " standard 
men " who can best do the work and continuously 
thrive. 

3. Motion study, in its investigation of the worker, 
supplies a list of variations in workers that can be 
utilized in selecting men. 8 

Variables of the Worker. — This list now includes 
at least 50 or 60 variables, and shows the possible 
elements which may demand consideration. When 
it is remembered that the individual selected may 
need a large or small proportion of most of the vari- 
ables in order to do his particular work most suc- 
cessfully, and that every single one of these variables, 
as related to the others, may, in some way affect his 
output and his welfare in doing his assigned work, the 
importance of taking account of individuality in selec- 
tion is apparent. 

Scientific Management Needs Support in Studying 
Workers. — The best of management is by no means 
at its ultimate stage in practice in this field. This, 
not because of a lack in the laws of management, but 
because, so far, Scientific Management has not re- 
ceived proper support from other lines of activity. 

Present Lack of Knowledge of Applicants. — At 
present, the men who apply to the Industries for posi- 

8 F. B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 7. 



INDIVIDUALITY 29 

tions have no scientifically determined idea of their 
own capabilities, neither has there been any effort 
in the training or experience of most of those who 
apply for work for the first time to show them how 
fit they really are to do the work which they wish 
to do. 

Supplements Demanded by Scientific Manage- 
ment. — Before the worker can be scientifically 
selected so that his individuality can be appreciated, 
Scientific Management must be supplemented in two 
ways : — 

1. By psychological and physiological study of 
workers under it. By such study of the effect of 
various kinds of standardized work upon the mind 
and body, standard requirements for men who de- 
sire to do the work can be made. 

2. By scientific study of the worker made before 
he comes into the Industries, the results of which 
shall show his capabilities and possibilities. 9 

Whence This Help Must Come. — This study must 
be made 

a. In the Vocational Guidance Work. 

b. In the Academic Work, 

and in both fields psychological and physiological 
investigations are called for. 

Work of Vocational Guidance Bureaus. — ■Voca- 
tional Guidance Bureaus are, at present, doing a 
wonderful work in their line. This work divides it- 
self into two parts : 

1. Determining the capabilities of the boy, that is, 

9 L. B. Blan, A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation, 
p. 80. 



3 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

seeing what he is, by nature and training, best fitted 
to do. 

2. Determining the possibilities of his securing 
work in the line where he is best fitted to work, that 
is, studying the industrial opportunities that offer, 
and the " welfare " of the worker under each, using 
the word welfare in the broadest sense, of general 
wellbeing, mental, physical, moral and financial. 

Work of Academic World. — The Academic World 
is also, wherever it is progressive, attempting to study 
the student, and to develop him so that he can be 
the most efficient individual. Progressive educators 
realize that schools and colleges must stand or fall, 
as efficient, as the men they train become successful 
or unsuccessful in their vocations, as well as in their 
personal culture. 

Need for Psychological Study in All Fields. — In 
both these complementary lines of activity, as in 
Scientific Management itself, the need for psycholog- 
ical study is evident. 10 Through it, only, can scien- 
tific progress come. Here is emphasized again the 
importance of measurement. Through accurate 
measurement of the mind and the body only can indi- 
viduality be recognized, conserved and developed as 
it should be. 

Preparedness of Experimental Psychology. — Ex- 
perimental psychology has instruments of precision 
with which to measure and test the minds and bodies 
brought to it, and its leading exponents are so broad- 
ening the scope of its activities that it is ready and 
glad to plan for investigations. 

10 Hugo Munsterberg, American Problems, pp. 38-39. 



INDIVIDUALITY 31 

Method of Selection Under Ultimate Manage- 
ment. — Under Ultimate Management, the minds of 
the workers, — and of the managers too, — will have 
been studied, and the results recorded from earliest 
childhood. This record, made by trained investiga- 
tors, will enable vocational guidance directors to tell 
the child what he is fitted to be, and thus to help the 
schools and colleges to know how best to train him, 
that is to say, to provide what he will need to know 
to do his life work, and also those cultural studies 
that his vocational work may lack, and that may be 
required to build out his best development as an 
individual. 

It is not always recognized that even the student 
who can afford to postpone his technical training until 
he has completed a general culture course, requires 
that his culture course be carefully planned. Not 
only must he choose those general courses that will 
serve as a foundation for his special study, and that 
will broaden and enrich his study, but also he must 
be provided with a counter-balance, — with interests 
that his special work might never arouse in him. 
Thus the field of Scientific Management can be nar- 
rowed to determining and preparing standard plans 
for standard specialized men, and selecting men to 
fill these places from competent applicants. 

What part of the specialized training needed by 
the special work shall be given in schools and what 
in the industries themselves can be determined later. 
The " twin apprentice " plan offers one solution of 
the problem that has proved satisfactory in many 
places. The psychological study should determine 



32 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

through which agency knowledge can best come at 
any particular stage of mental growth. 

Effect on Workers of Such Selection. — As will be 
shown at greater length under " Incentives," Scien- 
tific Management aims in every way to encourage 
initiative. The outline here given as to how men 
must, ultimately, under Scientific Management, be 
selected serves to show that, far from being " made 
machines of," men are selected to reach that special 
place where their individuality can be recognized and 
rewarded to the greatest extent. 

Selection Under Scientific Management To-day. — 
At the present day, the most that Scientific Manage- 
ment can do, in the average case, is to determine the 
type of men needed for any particular kind of work, 
and then to select that man who seems, from such 
observations as can be made, best to conform to the 
type. The accurate knowledge of the requirements 
of the work, and the knowledge of variables of the 
worker make even a cursory observation more rich in 
results than it would otherwise be. Even such an 
apparently obvious observation, as that the very fact 
that a man claims that he can do the work implies 
desire and will on his part to do it that may overcome 
many natural lacks, — even this is an advance in recog- 
nizing individuality. 

Effect of This Selection. — The result of this scien- 
tific selection of the workman is not only better work, 
but also, and more important from the psychological 
side, the development of his individuality. It is not 
always recognized that the work itself is a great 



INDIVIDUALITY 33 

educator, and that acute cleverness in the line of 
work to which he is fitted comes to the worker. 

Individuality Developed by Separating Outputs. — 
Under Scientific Management the work of each man 
is arranged either so that his output shows up 
separately and on the individual records, or, if the 
work is such that it seems best to do it in gangs, 
the output can often be so recorded that the indi- 
vidual's output can be computed from the records. 

Purpose of Separating Outputs. — The primary 
purpose of separating the output is to see what the 
man can do, to record this, and to reward the man 
according to his work, but this separating of output 
has also an individual result, which is even more im- 
portant than the result aimed at, and that is the de- 
velopment of individuality. 

Under Traditional Management and the usual " day 
work," much of the work is done by gangs and is 
observed or recorded as of gangs. Only now and 
then, when the work of some particular individual 
shows up decidedly better or worse than that of his 
fellows, and when the foreman or superintendent, 
or other onlooker, happens to observe this is the 
individual appreciated, and then only in the most in- 
exact, unsystematic manner. 

Under Scientific Management, making individual 
output show up separately allows of individual re- 
cording, tasks, teaching and rewards. 

Effect on Athletic Contests. — Also, with this 
separation of the work of the individual under Scien- 
tific Management comes the possibility of a real, 



34 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

scientific, " athletic contest." This athletic contest, 
which proves itself so successful in Traditional Man- 
agement, even when the men are grouped as gangs 
and their work is not recorded or thought of sepa- 
rately, proves itself quite as efficient or more efficient 
under Scientific Management, when the work of the 
man shows up separately. It might be objected that 
the old gang spirit, or it might be called " team " 
spirit, would disappear with the separation of the 
work. This is not so, as will be noted by a com- 
parison to a baseball team, where each man has his 
separate place and his separate work and where his 
work shows up separately with separate records, such 
as " batting average " and " fielding average." Team 
spirit is the result of being grouped together against 
a common opponent, and it will be the same in any 
sort of work when the men are so grouped, or given 
to understand that they belong on the same side. 

The following twelve rules for an Athletic Contest 
under Transitory System are quoted as exemplifying 
the benefits which accrue to Individuality. 

i. Men must have square deal. 

2. Conditions must be similar. 

3. Men must be properly spaced and placed. 

4. Output must show up separately. 

5. Men must be properly started. 

6. Causes for delay must be eliminated. 

7. Pace maker must be provided. 

8. Time for rest must be provided. 

9. Individual scores must be kept and posted. 
10. " Audience " must be provided. 



INDIVIDUALITY 35 

11. Rewards must be prompt and provided for all 
good scores — not for winners only. 

12. Appreciation must be shown. 11 

This list shows the effects of many fundamental 
principles of Scientific Management, — but we note 
particularly here that over half the rules demand that ■ 
outputs be separated as a prerequisite. 

None of the benefits of the Athletic Contest are 
lost under Scientific Management. The only re- 
strictions placed are that the men shall not be grouped 
according to any distinction that would cause hatred 
or ill feeling, that the results shall be ultimately bene- 
ficial to the workers themselves, and that all high 
scores shall win high prizes. 

As will be brought out later under " Incentives," 
no competition is approved under Scientific Manage- 
ment which speeds up the men uselessly, or which 
brings any ill feeling between the men or any feeling 
that the weaker ones have not a fair chance. All of 
these things are contrary to Scientific Management, as 
well as contrary to common sense, for it goes without 
saying that no man is capable of doing his best work 
permanently if he is worried by the idea that he will 
not receive the square deal, that someone stronger 
than he will be allowed to cheat or to domineer over 
him, or that he will be speeded up to such an extent 
that while his work will increase for one day, the next 
day his work will fall down because of the effect of 
the fatigue of the day before. 

The field of the contests is widened, as separating 

11 F. B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System, Chap. III. 



36 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of the work of the individual not only allows for com- 
petition between individuals, but for the competition 
of the individual with his own records. This com- 
petition is not only a great, constant and helpful in- 
centive to every worker, but it is also an excellent 
means of developing individuality. 

Advantages to Managers of Separating Output. — 
The advantages to the managers of separating the 
work are that there is a chance to know exactly who 
is making the high output, and that the spirit of com- 
petition which prevails when men compare their out- 
puts to their own former records or others, leads to 
increased effort. 

Advantages to Workers of Separating Output. — 
As for advantages to the men: 

By separation of the individual work, not only is 
the man's work itself shown, but at the same time 
the work of all other people is separated, cut away 
and put aside, and he can locate the man who is 
delaying him by, for example, not keeping him sup- 
plied with materials. The man has not only an op- 
portunity to concentrate, but every possible incentive 
to exercise his will and his desire to do things. His 
attention is concentrated on the fact that he as an 
individual is expected to do his very best. He has 
the moral stimulus of responsibility. He has the 
emotional stimulus of competition. He has the 
mental stimulus of definiteness. He has, most valu- 
able of all, a chance to be an entity rather than one 
of an undiscriminated gang. This chance to be an 
individual, or personality, is in great contradistinc- 
tion to the popular opinion of Scientific Management, 



INDIVIDUALITY 37 

which thinks it turns men into machines. A very 
simple example of the effect of the worker's seeing 
his output show up separately in response to and in 
proportion to his effort and skill is that of boys in 
the lumber producing districts chopping edgings for 
fire wood. Here the chopping is so comparatively 
light that the output increased very rapidly, and the 
boy delights to " see his pile of fire wood grow." 

With the separation of the work conies not only 
the opportunity for the men to see their own work, but 
also to see that of others, and there comes with this 
the spirit of imitation, or the spirit of friendly opposi- 
tion, either of which, while valuable in itself is even 
more valuable as the by-product of being a life-giving 
thought, and of putting life into the work such as there 
never could be when the men were working together, 
more or less objectless, because they could not see 
plainly either what they were doing themselves, or 
what others were doing. 

Separation of the output of the men gives them 
the greatest opportunity to develop. It gives them 
a chance to concentrate their attention at the work on 
which they are, because it is not necessary for them 
to waste any time to find out what that work is. 
Their work stands out by itself; they can put their 
whole minds to that work; they can become interested 
in that work and its outcome, and they can be posi- 
tive that what they have done will be appreciated 
and recognized, and that it will have a good effect, 
with no possibility of evil effect, upon their chance 
for work and their chance for pay and promotion in 
the future. Defmiteness of the boundaries, then, is 



38 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

not only good management in that it shows up the 
work and that it allows each man to see, and each 
man over him, or observing him to see exactly what 
has been done, — it has also an excellent effect upon 
the worker's mind. 

Individuality Developed by Recording Output 
Separately. — The spirit of individuality is brought 
out still more clearly by the fact that under Scien- 
tific Management, output is recorded separately. 
This recording of the outputs separately is, usually, 
and very successfully, one of the first features in- 
stalled in Transitory Management, and a feature very 
seldom introduced, even unconscious of its worth, in 
day work under Traditional Management. It is one 
of the great disadvantages of many kinds of work, 
especially in this day, that the worker does only a 
small part of the finished article and that he has a 
feeling that what he does is not identified perma- 
nently with the success of the completed whole. We 
may note that one of the great unsatisfying features 
to such arts as acting and music, is that no matter 
how wonderful the performer's efforts, there was no 
permanent record of them; that the work of the day 
dies with the day. He can expect to live only in the 
minds and hearts of the hearers, in the accounts of 
spectators, or in histories of the stage. 

It is, therefore, not strange that the world's best 
actors and singers are now grasping the opportunity 
to make their best efforts permanent through the 
instrumentality of the motion picture films and the 
talking machine records. This same feeling, minus 
the glow of enthusiasm that at least attends the actor 



INDIVIDUALITY 39 

during the work, is present in more or less degree 
in the mind of the worker. 

Records Make Work Seem Worth While. — With 
the feeling that his work is recorded comes the feel- 
ing that the work is really worth while, for even if 
the work itself does not last, the records of it are such 
as can go on. 

Records Give Individuals a Feeling of Perma- 
nence. — With recorded individual output comes also 
the feeling of permanence, of credit for good perform- 
ance. This desire for permanence shows itself all 
through the work of men in Traditional Management, 
for example — in the stone cutter's art where the 
man who had successfully dressed the stone from 
the rough block was delighted to put his own indi- 
vidual mark on it, even though he knew that that 
mark probably would seldom, if ever, be noticed again 
by anyone after the stone was set in the wall. It is 
an underlying trait of the human mind to desire this 
permanence of record of successful effort, and ful- 
filling and utilizing this desire is a great gain of 
Scientific Management. 

Mental Development of Worker Through Rec- 
ords. — It is not only for his satisfaction that the 
worker should see his records and realize that his 
work has permanence, but also for comparison of his 
work not only with his own record, but with the work 
of others. The value of these comparisons, not only 
to the management but to the worker himself, must 
not be underestimated. The worker gains mental de- 
velopment and physical skill by studying these com- 
parisons. 



4 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Advantages to Worker of Making his Own Rec- 
ords. — These possibilities of mental development 
are still further increased when the man makes his 
own records. This leads to closer attention, to more 
interest in the work, and to a realization of the man as 
to what the record really means, and what value it 
represents. Though even a record that is made for 
him and is posted where he can see it will probably 
result in a difference in his pay envelope, no such 
progress is likely to occur as when the man makes his 
own record, and must be conscious every moment of 
the time exactly where he stands. 

Possibilities of Making Individual Records. — Rec- 
ords of individual efficiency are comparatively easy 
to make when output is separated. But even when 
work must be done by gangs or teams of men, there 
is provision made in Scientific Management for re- 
cording this gang work in such a way that either the 
output or the efficiency, or both, of each man shows 
up separately. This may be done in several ways, 
such as, for example, by recording the total time of 
delays avoidable and unavoidable, caused by each 
man, and from this computing individual records. 
This method of recording is psychologically right, 
because the recording of the delay will serve as a 
warning to the man, and as a spur to him not to cause 
delay to others again. 

The forcefulness of the " don't " and the " never " 
have been investigated by education. Undoubtedly 
the " do " is far stronger, but in this particular case 
the command deduced from the records of delay to 
others is, necessarily, in the negative form, and a 



INDIVIDUALITY 41 

study of the psychological results proves most in- 
structive. 

Benefits to Managers of Individual Records. — The 
value of the training to the foremen, to the superin- 
tendents and to the managers higher up, who study 
these records, as well as to the timekeepers, recorders 
and clerks in the Time and Cost Department who 
make the records, is obvious. There is not only the 
possibility of appreciating and rewarding the worker, 
and thus stimulating him to further activity, there is 
also, especially in the Transitory stage, when men 
are to be chosen on whom to make Time Study ob- 
servations, an excellent chance to compare various 
methods of doing work and their results. 

Incentives with Individual Records. — The greatest 
value of recorded outputs is in the appreciation of 
the work of the individual that becomes possible. 
First of all, appreciation by the management, which 
to the worker must be the most important of all, as 
it means to him a greater chance for promotion and 
for more pay. This promotion and additional pay 
are amply provided for by Scientific Management, 
as will be shown later in discussing Incentives and 
Welfare. 

Not only is the work appreciated by the manage- 
ment and by the man himself, but also the work be- 
comes possible of appreciation by others. The form 
of the record as used in Scientific Management, and 
as introduced early in the transitory stage, makes it 
possible for many beside those working on the job, 
if they take the pains to consult the records, which 
are best posted in a conspicuous place on the work, 



42 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

to know and appreciate what the worker is doing. 
This can be best illustrated, perhaps, by various 
methods of recording output on contracting work, — 
out-of-door work. 

The flag flown by the successful contestants in the 
athletic contests, showing which gang or which in- 
dividual has made the largest output during the day 
previous, allows everyone who passes to appreciate 
the attainment of that particular worker, or that 
group of workers. The photographs of the " high 
priced men," copies of which may be given to the 
workers themselves, allow the worker to carry home 
a record and thus impress his family with what he 
has done. Too often the family is unable by them- 
selves to understand the value of the worker's work, 
or to appreciate the effect of his home life, food, and 
rest conditions upon his life work, and this entire 
strong element of interest of the worker's family in 
his work is often lost. 

Relation of Individual Records to Scientific Man- 
agement in General. — Any study of Records of an 
individual's work again makes clear that no one topic 
of Scientific Management can be properly noted with- 
out a consideration of all other elements. The fact 
that under Scientific Management the record with 
which the man most surely and constantly competes 
is his own, as provided for by the individual instruc- 
tion card and the individual task; the fact that under 
Scientific Management the man need be in no fear of 
losing his job if he does his best ; the fact that Scien- 
tific Management is founded on the " square deal " ; 
— all of these facts must be kept constantly in mind 



INDIVIDUALITY 43 

when considering the advantages of recording in- 
dividual output, for they all have a strong psycho- 
logical effect on the man's mind. It is important to 
remember that not only does Scientific Management 
provide for certain directions and thoughts entering 
the man's mind, but that it also eliminates other 
thoughts which would surely have a tendency to re- 
tard his work. The result is output far exceeding 
what is usually possible under Traditional Manage- 
ment, because drawbacks are removed and impetuses 
added. 

The outcome of the records, and their related ele- 
ments in other branches of Scientific Management, is 
to arouse interest. Interest arouses abnormally con- 
centrated attention, and this in turn is the cause of 
genius. This again answers the argument of those 
who claim that Scientific Management kills individ- 
uality and turns the worker into a machine. 

Individual Task Under Scientific Management. — 
Individuality is also taken into consideration when 
preparing the task. This task would always be for 
an individual, even in the case of the gang instruc- 
tion card. It usually recognizes individuality, in 
that — 

1. It is prepared for one individual only, when pos- 
sible. 

2. It is prepared for the particular individual who 
is to do it. 

The working time, as will be shown later, is based 
upon time study observations on a standard man, but 
when a task is assigned for a certain individual, that 
proportion of the work of the standard or first class 



44 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

man is assigned to that particular given man who is 
actually to do it, which he is able to do. It is funda- 
mental that the task must be such that the man who 
is actually put at it, when he obeys orders and works 
steadily, can do it; that is, the task must be achievable, 
and achievable without such effort as would do men- 
tal or physical injury to the worker. This not only 
gives the individual the proper amount of work to 
do, recognizes his particular capabilities and is par- 
ticularly adapted to him, but it also eliminates all 
dread on the score of his not being appreciated, in 
that the worker knows that if he achieves or exceeds 
his task he will not only receive the wage for it, but 
will continue to receive that wage, or more, for like 
achievement. The rate is not cut. Under the 
" three-rate with increased rate system," which ex- 
perience has shown to be a most advanced plan for 
compensating workmen, the worker receives one 
bonus for exactness as to methods, that is, he re- 
ceives one bonus if he does the task exactly as he is 
instructed to do it as to methods ; and a second bonus, 
or extra bonus, if he completes his task in the al- 
lotted time. This not only assures adequate pay to 
the man who is slow, but a good imitator, but also to 
the man who, perhaps, is not such a good imitator, 
and must put attention on the quality rather than the 
quantity of his performance. 

Individuality Emphasized by Instruction Card. — 
This individual task is embodied in an individual in- 
struction card. 

In all work where it is possible to do so, the worker 
is given an individual instruction card, even though 



INDIVIDUALITY 45 

his operations and rest periods are also determined by 
a gang instruction card. This card not only tells the 
man what he is to do, how he can best do it, and the 
time that it is supposed to take him to do it, — but it 
bears also the signature of the man who made it. 
This in order that if the worker cannot fulfill the re- 
quirements of the card he may lose no time in deter- 
mining who is to give him the necessary instructions 
or help that will result in his earning his large wages. 
More than this, he must call for help from his as- 
signed teachers, as is stated in large type on a typical 
Instruction Card as follows: "When instructions 
cannot be carried out, foreman must at once report to 
man who signed this card." 

The signature of the man who made the card not 
only develops his sense of individuality and responsi- 
bility, but helps create a feeling of inter-responsibility 
between the workers in various parts of the organiza- 
tion. 

The Gang Instruction Card. — A gang instruction 
card is used for such work only as must be done by a 
group of men all engaged at the work at once, or who 
are working at a dependent sequence of operations, 
or both. This card contains but those portions of 
the instructions for each man which refer to those 
elements which must be completed before a following 
element, to be done by the next man in the sequence, 
can be completed. Because of the nature of the work, 
the gang instruction card must be put in the hands of 
a leader, or foreman, whether or not it is also in the 
hands of each of the individuals. The amount of 
work which can be required as a set task for each in- 



46 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

dividual member of the gang, the allowance for rest 
for overcoming fatigue, the time that the rest periods 
must occur, and the proper pay, are fully stated on the 
Individual Instruction Cards. 

Methods of Teaching Foster Individuality. — As 
will be shown at length in the Chapter on Teaching, 
under Scientific Management teaching is not only 
general, by " Systems," " Standing Orders," or 
" Standard Practice," but also specific. Specialized 
teachers, called, unfortunately for the emphasis de- 
sired to be put on teaching, " functional foremen," 
help the individual worker to overcome his peculiar 
difficulties. 

This teaching not only allows every worker to sup- 
plement his deficiencies of disposition or experience, 
but the teachers' places give opportunities for those 
who have a talent for imparting knowledge to utilize 
and develop it. 

Individual Incentive and Welfare. — Finally, in- 
dividual incentive and individual welfare are not only 
both present, but interdependent. Desire for indi- 
vidual success, which might lead a worker to respond 
to the incentive till he held back perhaps the work of 
others, is held in balance by interdependence of bo- 
nuses. This will be explained in full in the Chapters 
on Incentives and Welfare. 

SUMMARY 

Result of Idea of Individuality upon Work. — To 

recapitulate ; — Under Traditional Management, be- 
cause of its frequent neglect of the idea of in- 
dividuality, work is often unsystematized, and high 



INDIVIDUALITY 47 

output is usually the result of " speeding up " only, 
with constant danger of a falling off in quality over- 
balancing men and injury to men and machinery. 

Under Transitory Management, as outputs are 
separated, separately recorded, and as the idea of 
Individuality is embodied in selecting men, setting 
tasks, the instruction cards, periods of rest, teaching, 
incentives and welfare, output increases without un- 
due pressure on the worker. 

Under Scientific Management — with various ele- 
ments which embody individuality fully developed, 
output increases, to the welfare of worker, manager, 
employer and consumer and with no falling off in 
quality. 

Effect Upon the Worker. — The question of the 
effect upon the worker of emphasis laid upon in- 
dividuality, can perhaps best be answered by asking 
and answering the following questions : — 

1. When, where, how, and how much is individ- 
uality considered? 

2. What consideration is given to the relation of 
the mind to the body of the individual? 

3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration 
of individual and class? 

4. In how far is the individual the unit? 

5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies? 

6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing 
about development, that is, broadening, deepening 
and making the individual more progressive? 

Extent of Consideration of Individuality. — 1. Un- 
der Traditional Management consideration of individ- 
uality is seldom present, but those best forms of Tra- 



48 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ditional Management that are successful are so be- 
cause it is present. This is not usually recognized, 
but investigation shows that the successful manager, 
or foreman, or boss, or superintendent succeeds either 
because of his own individuality or because he brings 
out to good advantage the individual possibilities of 
his men. The most successful workers under Tradi- 
tional Management are those who are allowed to be 
individuals and to follow out their individual bents of 
greatest efficiency, instead of being crowded down 
to become mere members of gangs, with no chance 
to think, to do, or to be anything but parts of the 
gang. 

Under Transitory Management, and most fully 
under Scientific Management, the spirit of individual- 
ity, far from being crowded out, is a basic principle, 
and everything possible is done to encourage the de- 
sire to be a personality. 

Relation of Mind to Body. — Under Traditional 
Management, where men worked in the same employ 
for a long time, much consideration was given to the 
relation of the mind to the body. It was realized 
that men must not be speeded up beyond what they 
could do healthfully; they must have good sleeping 
quarters and good, savory and appetizing food to eat 
and not be fatigued unnecessarily, if they were to 
become successful workers. More than this, philan- 
thropic employers often attempted to supply many 
kinds of comfort and amusement. 

Under Transitory Management the physical and 
mental welfare are provided for more systematically. 

Under Scientific Management consideration of the 



INDIVIDUALITY 49 

mind and body of the workman, and his health, and 
all that that includes, is a subject for scientific study 
and for scientific administration. As shown later, 
it eliminates all discussion and troubles of so-called 
" welfare work," because the interests of the employer 
and the worker become identical and everything that 
is done becomes the concern of both. 

Scientific Management realizes that the condition 
of the body effects every possible mental process. 
It is one of the great advantages of a study of the 
psychology of management that the subject absolutely 
demands from the start, and insists in every stage of 
the work, on this relationship of the body to the 
mind, and of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the 
worker to his work. 

It is almost impossible, in management, to sepa- 
rate the subject of the worker from that of his work, 
or to think of the worker as not working except in 
such a sense as " ceasing-from-work," " about-to- 
work," " resting to overcome fatigue of work," or 
" resting during periods of unavoidable delays." The 
relation of the worker to his work is constantly in 
the mind of the manager. It is for this reason that 
not only does management owe much to psychology, 
but that psychology, as applied to any line of study, 
will, ultimately, be recognized as owing much to the 
science of management. 

Relative Emphasis on Individual and Class. — 
Under Traditional Management the gang, or the class, 
usually receives the chief emphasis. If the individual 
developed, as he undoubtedly did, in many kinds of 
mechanical work, especially in small organizations, 



5 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

it was more or less because it was not possible for the 
managers to organize the various individuals into 
classes or gangs. In the transitory stage the empha- 
sis is shifting. Under Scientific Management the em- 
phasis is most decidedly and emphatically upon the 
individual as the unit to be managed, as has been 
shown. 

Individual as the Unit. — Under Traditional Man- 
agement the individual was seldom the unit. Under 
Transitory Management the individual is the unit, but 
there is not much emphasis in the early stages placed 
upon his peculiarities and personalities. Under Scien- 
tific Management the unit is always the individual, 
and the utilizing and strengthening of his personal 
traits, special ability and skill is a dominating feature. 

Emphasis on Idiosyncrasies. — Under Traditional 
Management there is either no consideration given to 
idiosyncrasies, or too wide a latitude is allowed. In 
cases where no consideration is given, there is often 
either a pride in the managers in " treating all men 
alike," though they might respond better to different 
handling, or else the individual is undirected and his 
personality manifests itself in all sorts of unguided 
directions, many of which must necessarily be waste- 
ful, unproductive, or incomplete in development. 
Under Scientific Management, functionalization, as 
will be shown, provides for the utilization of all 
idiosyncrasies and efficient deviations from class, and 
promotion is so planned that a man may develop along 
the line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is en- 
couraged and developed constantly. 

Development of Individuality. — The development 



INDIVIDUALITY 51 

of individuality is more sure under Scientific Manage- 
ment than it is under either of the other two forms of 
management, (a) because this development is recog- 
nized to be a benefit to the worker and to the em- 
ployer and (b) because this development as a part 
of a definite plan is provided for and perfected scien- 
tifically. 



CHAPTER III 
FUNCTIONALIZATION 

Definition of Functionalization. — A function, says 
the Century Dictionary, is — " The fulfilment or dis- 
charge of a set duty or requirement, exercise of a 
faculty or office, or power of acting, faculty, — that 
power of acting in a specific way which appertains 
to a thing by virtue of its special constitution; that 
mode of action or operation which is proper to any 
organ, faculty, office structure, etc. (This is the 
most usual signification of the term)." 

" Functionalization " is not given in the Century 
Dictionary. The nearest to it to be found there is 
" Functionality," which is defined as — " The state of 
having or being a function." Functionalization as 
here used means — the state of being divided into 
functions, or being functionalized. " Functionalize " 
is given in the Century Dictionary, defined as " to 
assign some office or function to " — the note being 
made that it is rare. " Functionalize " may not be 
the best word that could be used in this connection, 
but there seems to be no other word in the English 
language which contains its full meaning, therefore 
we will use the word here in the sense of assigning 
work according to capacity or faculty. A faculty 
means — "A specific power, mental or physical; a 

52 



FUNCTIONALIZATION S3 

special capacity for any particular kind of action or 
affection; natural capability." 

Psychological Use of Functionalization. — The word 
" Function " is in constant use by modern psycholo- 
gists, especially by those who believe that — "Psy- 
chology is the science of the self in relation to environ- 
ment," * or that " Psychology is a scientific account 
of our mental processes." 2 Sully defines a function 
as " a psychologically simple process," 3 and com- 
pares its elementariness to a muscular contraction as 
an element of a step in walking. 

In investigating the principle of Functionalization 
as embodied in various forms of Management, we 
must note that, while Management can, and does 
under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize 
work as far as possible, it will be impossible to come 
to ultimate results until a psychological study of the 
requirement of the work from the worker, and results 
of the work on the worker is made. 4 

Functionalization in Management. — " Functional 
Management " consists, to quote Dr. Taylor, " in so 
directing the work of management that each man 
from the assistant superintendent down shall have as 
few functions as possible to perform. If practicable, 
the work of each man in the management should be 
confined to the performance of a single leading func- 
tion." 5 

1 Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 273. 

2 Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 1. 

3 Ibid., p. 54. 

*Hugo Miinsterberg, American Problems, p. 35. 
5 Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, 
p. 1. 



54 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

A study of functionalization as applied to manage- 
ment must answer the following questions : 
i. How is the work divided? 

2. How are the workers assigned to the work? 

3. What are the results to the work? 

4. What are the results to the worker? 
Traditional Management Seldom Functionalizes. — 

Under Traditional Management the principle of Func- 
tionalization was seldom applied or understood. 
Even when the manager tried to separate planning 
from performing, or so to divide the work that each 
worker could utilize his special ability, there were no 
permanently beneficial results, because there was no 
standard method of division. 

The Work of the Foreman Not Properly Divided. — 
The work of a foreman was not divided, but the well 
rounded man, as Dr. Taylor says, 6 was supposed to 
have 

1. Brain 

2. Education 

3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity 
or strength 

4. Tact 

5. Energy 

6. Grit 

7. Honesty 

8. Judgment, or common sense 

9. Good health. 

Dr. Taylor says — " Plenty of men who possess only 

three of the above qualities can be hired at any time 

for laborer's wages. Add four of these qualities to- 

6 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 221. Harper Ed., p. 96. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 55 

gether, and you get a higher priced man. The man 
combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to 
find, and those with 6, 7 and 8 are almost impossible 
to get." 

Yet, under Traditional Management these general 
qualities and many points of specific training were 
demanded of the foreman. Dr. Taylor has enumer- 
ated the qualifications or the duties of a gang boss in 
charge of lathes or planers. 7 Careful reading of this 
enumeration will show most plainly that the demands 
made were almost impossible of fulfillment. 8 

Another list which is interesting is found in " Cost 
Reducing System," a long list of the duties of the 
Ideal Superintendent or foreman in construction 
work. 9 

QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF FIRST 
CLASS FOREMAN 

A first class foreman must have: 
bodily strength 
brains 

common sense 
education 
energy 
good health 
good judgment 
grit 
manual dexterity 

7 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 221-231. Harper Ed., 
pp. 96-08. 

8 Compare H. L. Gantt, No. 1002, A. S. M. E., para. 9. 

9 Compare H. P. Gillette, Cost Analysis Engineering, pp. 1-2. 



56 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

special knowledge 

tact 

technical knowledge. 
He must be: 

able to concentrate his mind upon small things 

able to read drawings readily 

able to visualize the work at every stage of its 
progress, and even before it begins 

a master of detail 

honest 

master of at least one trade. 
His duties consist of: 

considering broad policies. 

considering new applicants for important posi- 
tions. 

considering the character and fitness of the 
men. 

determining a proper day's work. 

determining costs. 

determining the method of compensation. 

determining the sequence of events for the best 
results. 

disciplining the men. 

dividing the men into gangs for speed contests. 

fixing piece and day rates. 

getting rid of inferior men. 

handling relations with the unions. 

hiring good men. 

installing such methods and devices as will de- 
tect dishonesty. 

instructing the workman. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 57 

keeping the time and disciplining those who 

are late or absent, 
laying out work, 
looking ahead to see that there are men enough 

for future work, 
looking ahead to see that there is enough 

future work for the men. 
making profits. 

measuring each man's effort fairly, 
obtaining good results in quality, 
paying the men on days when they are dis- 
charged, 
paying the men on pay day. 
preventing soldiering, 
readjusting wages, 
retaining good men. 
seeing that all men are honest, 
seeing that men are shifted promptly when 

breakdowns occur, 
seeing that repairs are made promptly before 

breakdowns occur, 
seeing that repairs are made promptly after 

breakdowns occur, 
seeing that the most suitable man is allotted to 

each part of the work, 
seeing that the work is not slighted, 
setting piece work prices, 
setting rates, 
setting tasks, 
supervising timekeeping, 
teaching the apprentices. 



5 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

teaching the improvers, 
teaching the learners. 
In studying these lists we note — 

1. That the position will be best filled by a very 
high and rare type of man. 

2. That the man is forced to use every atom of all 
of his powers and at the same time to waste his 
energies in doing much unimportant pay reducing 
routine work, some of which could be done by clerks. 

3. That in many cases the work assigned for him 
to do calls for qualifications which are diametrically 
opposed to each other. 

4. That psychology tells us that a man fitted to 
perform some of these duties would probably be men- 
tally ill fitted for performing others in the best pos- 
sible way that they could be performed. 

Work Not Well Done. — Not only does the fore- 
man under Traditional Management do a great deal 
of work which can be done by cheaper men, but he 
also wastes his time on clerical work in which he is 
not a specialist, and, therefore, which he does not do 
as well as the work can be done by a cheaper man, 
and this takes more of his time than he ought to de- 
vote to it. The result is that the work is not done as 
well as it can and should be done. 

A most perfect illustration of a common form of 
Traditional Management is the old story of the fore- 
man, who, in making his rounds of the various parts 
of the work, comes to the deep hole being excavated 
for a foundation pier and says hurriedly — " How 
many of yez is there in the hole ? " " Seven." " The 
half of yez come up." 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 59 

The theoretical defects of the old type of manage- 
ment often seen before the advent of the trained en- 
gineer on the work include : — 

1. lack of planning ahead. 

2. an overworked foreman. 

3. no functionalizing of the work. 

4. no standards of individual efficiency. 

5. unmeasured individual outputs. 

6. no standard methods. 

7. no attempt at teaching. 

8. inaccurate directions. 

9. lack of athletic contests. 

10. no high pay for extra efficiency. 

11. poor investigation of workers' special capabili- 
ties. 

In spite of the fact that under unfunctionalized man- 
agement the foreman has far more to do than he can 
expect to do well, the average foreman thinks that 
he belongs to a class above his position. This is 
partly because the position is so unstandardized that 
it arouses a sense of unrest, and partly because he 
has to spend much of his time at low priced func- 
tions. 

Under the feeling of enmity, or at least, of opposi- 
tion, which often exists, openly or secretly, between 
the average Traditional Management and men, the 
foreman must ally himself with one side or the other. 
If he joins with the men, he must countenance the 
soldiering, which they find necessary in order to main- 
tain their rates of wages. Thus the output of the 
shop will seldom increase and his chance for apprecia- 
tion and promotion by the management will probably 



60 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

be slight and slow. His position as boss, combined 
with that of ally of the men, is awkward. 

If he allies himself to the management, he must 
usually become a driver of the men, if he wishes to 
increase output. This condition will never be agree- 
able to him unless he has an oversupply of brute 
instincts. 

The Workers Not Best Utilized. — Under the best 
types of Traditional Management we do find more or 
less spasmodic attempts at the functionalization of 
the worker. When there was any particular kind of 
work to be done, the worker who seemed to the man- 
ager to be the best fitted, was set at that kind of work. 
For example — if there was a particularly heavy piece 
of work he might say — " Let A do it because he is 
strong." If there was a particularly fine piece of 
work to be done he might say — "Let B do it because 
he is specially skilled." If there was a piece of work 
to be done which required originality, he might say — 
" Let C do it for the reason that he is inventive and 
resourceful "; but, in most cases, when the particular 
job on hand was finished, the worker selected to do it 
returned to other classes of work, and such special 
fitness or capability as he had, was seldom sytematic- 
ally utilized, or automatically assigned to his special 
function, neither was such experience as he had gained 
systematically conserved. Moreover, no such study 
of the work to be done had been made as would prove 
that the assignment of that particular worker to the 
work was right. The psychology of this was entirely 
wrong, — not only had no such study of the general 
and particular characteristics, traits, faculties, and 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 61 

talents of the man been made as would prove that he 
was the right man to be assigned, but the mere fact 
that he possessed one quality necessary for the work, 
if he really did possess it, was no sign that the other 
qualities which he possessed might not make him the 
wrong man to be chosen. Even if the man did happen 
to be assigned to work for which he was particularly 
suited, unless provision were made to keep him at 
such work only, to keep him well supplied with work, 
to allow time for rest, and to provide proper pay, he 
could not utilize his capabilities to the fullest extent. 

Transitory Management Functionalizes. — Under 
Transitory Management, management becomes grad- 
ually more and more functionalized. With separated 
outputs and separate records, the worker's capabilities 
become apparent, and he can be assigned to the stand- 
ardized positions which gradually evolve. Every 
recognition of individuality carries with it a corre- 
sponding functionalization of men and work. 

Functionalization a Fundamental of Scientific Man- 
agement. — With Scientific Management comes the 
realization that with close study and with functional- 
ization only, can that provision and assignment 
of the work which is best for both work and worker 
be obtained. The principle is applied to every part of 
management, and results in 

i. separating the planning from the performing. 

2. functionalizing foremen. 

3. functionalizing workers. 

4. assigning competent workers to fitting work. 
Separating the Planning from the Perform- 
ing. — The emphasis on separating the planning from 



62 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

the performing in Scientific Management cannot be 
over-estimated. It is a part of Dr. Taylor's fourth 
principle of Scientific Management, " Almost equal 
division of the work and the responsibility between 
the management and the workmen." 10 The great- 
est outputs can be achieved to the greatest benefit 
to managers and men when the work is divided, the 
management undertaking that part of the work that 
it is best fitted to do, the workmen performing that 
part which they are best fitted to do. 

The Work of the Planning Department. — It has 
been determined by actual experience that the line of 
division most agreeable to the managers and the 
workmen and most productive of cooperation by 
both, as well as most efficient in producing low costs, 
is that which separates the planning from the per- 
forming. Under Scientific Management the Plan- 
ning Department relieves the man of determin- 
ing— 

i. what work is to be done. 

2. sequence in which it is to be done. 

3. method by which it shall be done. 

4. where it shall be done. 

5. which men shall do it. 

6. time that it shall take. 

7. exact quality of product. 

8. quantity of additional pay that shall be given 
for doing it. 

Work of the Workers. — The men are simply given 
standard tasks to do, with teachers to help them, and 
a standard wage according to performance as a re- 
10 F. W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. yj. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 63 

ward. There are but three things expected of 
them: — 

1. cooperation with the management in obtaining 
the prescribed work, method and quality. 

2. the exercise of their ingenuity in making im- 
provements after they have learned the standard 
prescribed practice. 

3. the fitting of themselves for higher pay and pro- 
motion. 

Functionalized Foremanship. — The work that, un- 
der Scientific Management, is usually done by one 
man, the Foreman, is subdivided into eight or more 
functions. These functions are assigned to the fol- 
lowing functional foremen: 11 

Planning Department 

1. Order of work and route man 

2. Instruction card man 

3. Cost and time clerk 

4. Disciplinarian 
Performing Department 

5. Gang boss 

6. Speed boss 

7. Repair boss 

8. Inspector 

Each of the above functions may be in charge of a 
separate man, or one man may be in charge of several 
functions, or several men may do the work of one 
function ; the work being divided between them in 
some cases by further functionalizing it, — and in 
others by separating it into similar parts. Which of 

11 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 245. Harper Ed., p. 
104. 



64 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

these conditions is most effective depends on the size 
of the job, or the nature of the job to be done. The 
important question is, not the number of men doing 
the planning, but the fact that every foreman, so far 
as is possible, is assigned to the special kind of work 
that he is best fitted to do with the greatest elimina- 
tion of unnecessary waste. 

Changes in the Functions of the Foreman. — A 
Foreman, under Scientific Management, must have 
three qualifications. He must be 

i. a specialist at the work that he is to do. 

2. a good observer, able to note minute variations 
of method, work, and efficiency. 

3. a good teacher. 

A comparison of these qualifications with those of 
the foreman under Traditional Management, will 
show as important changes, — 

1. the particular place in the field of knowledge 
in which the foreman must specialize. 

2. the change in the type of criticism expected 
from the foreman. 

3. the far greater emphasis placed on duties as a 
teacher. 

Importance of the Teaching Feature in Functional 
Foremanship. — The teaching feature of management, 
— the most important feature of Scientific Man- 
agement, — will be discussed in the Chapter on Teach- 
ing. Only so much is included here as shows its der- 
ivation from the principle of functionalization, and its 
underlying importance. 

Functionalization means specialization. This re- 
sults in cooperation between foremen, between fore- 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 65 

men and workers, and between workers. By " co- 
operate " is here meant not only " to work together," 
but also " to work together to promote the object." 
This cooperation persists not only because it is de- 
manded by the work, but also because it is insured 
by the inter-dependent bonuses. 

Functionalization under Scientific Management 
separates planning from performing. This means 
that the specialists who plan must teach the specialist 
who performs, this being the way in which they co- 
operate to the greatest personal advantage to all. 

Basis of Division into Functions. — Under Scien- 
tific Management divisions are made on the basis of 
underlying ideas. Functions are not classified as they 
are embodied in particular men, but men are classified 
as they embody particular functions. This allows of 
standardization, through which alone can progress 
and evolution come quickest. It is comparatively 
easy and simple to standardize a function. Being a 
" set duty," it can be fixed, studied and simplified. It 
is extremely difficult and complex to standardize an 
individual. This standardizing of the function, how- 
ever, in no wise stunts individuality. On the con- 
trary, it gives each individual a chance to utilize his 
particular faculty for obtaining the greatest efficiency, 
pleasure and profit. This is well illustrated in the 
case of specialization in baseball, for excellence as a 
pitcher does not stunt the player as a catcher. 

Functions may be subdivided as far as the nature 
of the work demands. Note here, again, that it is the 
relative complexity or simplicity of the nature of the 
work that is to be done that determines the degree 



66 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of its functionalization. not the number of men em- 
ployed at the work. 

Note, also, that with every subdivision of functions 
comes greater opportunity for specialization, hence 
for individual development. 

Place of Operation of the Functions. — Four func- 
tions of the eight find their place in the planning de- 
partment. The other four are out on the work. 
That is to say, — the men who represent four func- 
tions work almost entirely in the planning room, 
while the men who represent the other four functions 
work mostly among the workers. This division is, 
however, largely a matter of convenience. Three of 
the first four groups of men communicate with the 
workers mostly in writing and are seldom engaged as 
observers, except in obtaining data for the creation of 
standards, while the fourth is often in the planning 
room. The last four usually communicate with the 
men orally, and must observe and teach the worker 
constantly. 

In the descriptions that follow, each function is 
represented as embodied in one man, this aiding sim- 
plicity and clearness in description. 

The Order of Work and Route Clerk.— The Order 
of Work and Route Clerk lays out the exact path of 
each piece of work, and determines the sequence of 
events of moving and a general outline of perform- 
ance. 12 With the requirements of the work in mind, 
the most efficient day's work for each worker is de- 
termined. The paths and sequences of transportation 

12 For excellent example of special routing see: Charles Day, 
Industrial Plants, chap. VII. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 67 

are outlined by means of route charts and route sheets 
showing graphical and detailed directions, which are 
the means by which the foremen of the other func- 
tions are enabled to cooperate with other foremen and 
with the workers. 

The work of this function requires a practical man, 
of the successful foreman type, experienced in the 
class of work to be executed, who is also familiar with 
the theories of Scientific Management in general, and 
the work of the other foremen in particular, and who 
has the faculty of visualization and well developed 
constructive imagination. He must also have at his 
command in systematic form, and available for im- 
mediate use, records of previous experience. 

The Instruction Card Clerk. — The Instruction Card 
Clerk prepares written directions for the workers 
as to what methods should be used in doing the work, 
the sequence of performance of the elements of the 
method, the speeds and action of the accompanying 
machinery, the time that each element should take for 
its performance, the time allowed for rest for over- 
coming fatigue caused by its performance, and the 
total elapsed time allowed for performing all of the 
work on the instruction card in order to obtain the 
unusually high additional wages as a reward for his 
skill and cooperation. 

The work of this function requires the best avail- 
able (but not necessarily the fastest), practical ex- 
perienced man in the trade described, who also has 
had sufficient experience in motion study and time 
study to enable him to write down the best known 
method for doing the work described, and also 



68 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

prophesying the correct time that the work and rest 
from its resulting fatigue will take. He must sup- 
plement the instruction card with such sketches, 
drawings and photographs as will best assist the 
worker to visualize his work before and during its 
performance. 

Function of Time and Cost Clerk. — The work done 
by the Time and Cost Clerk calls for accuracy and 
a love of statistical detail. It will help him if he 
knows the trades with which he is cooperating, but 
such knowledge is not absolutely essential. He will 
be promoted fastest who has a knowledge of the 
theory of management, coupled with the theory and 
practice of statistics and accountancy, for the true 
costs must include knowledge of costs of materials, 
and the distribution of the overhead burden of run- 
ning expenses and selling. 

Function of the Disciplinarian. — The function of 
the Disciplinarian must be discussed at length, both 
because of the psychological effect upon the men of 
the manner of the discipline and of the disciplinarian, 
and because of the fact that the disciplinarian is the 
functional foreman of the four in the planning depart- 
ment who comes in most personal contact with the 
workers, as well as all of the other foremen, and the 
Superintendent. 

It is important to note, in the discussion that is to 
follow, not only how disciplining is transformed as 
management develops progressively, but also that the 
intimate acquaintance of discipliner with disciplined 
is not done away with, but rather supplemented by 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 69 

the standardizing which is the outcome of Scientific 
Management. 

The defects of methods of disciplining under Tra- 
ditional Management are remedied, but here, as 
always, Scientific Management retains and develops 
that which is good. This because the good in the 
older forms conformed, unconsciously, to the under- 
lying laws. 

Defects of Disciplining Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — Under Traditional Management, the dis- 
ciplining is done by the foreman; that is, the punish- 
ment is meted out by the man who has charge of all 
activities of the men under him. This is actually, in 
practice and in theory, psychologically wrong. If 
there is one man who should be in a state of mind that 
would enable him to judge dispassionately, it is the 
disciplinarian. The man to be disciplined is usually 
guilty of one of six offenses : 

1. an offense against an employe of a grade above 
him. 

2. an offense against an employe of the same 
grade. 

3. an offense against an employe of a grade be- 
low him. 

4. falling short in the quality of his work. 

5. falling short in the quantity of his work. 

6. an offense against the system (disobeying or- 
ders), falling down on schedule, or intentionally not 
cooperating. 

The employe over him, or the foreman, to whom 
he is supposed to have done some injustice, would be 
in no state of mind to judge as to the man's 



yo THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

culpability. In the case of an offense against an 
employe of the same grade, the best that the injured 
employe could do would be to appeal to his fore- 
man, who oftentimes is not an unprejudiced judge, 
and the multiplicity of whose duties give him little 
time to give attention to the subject of disciplining. 

If the offense is against quantity or quality of work, 
again the old fashioned foreman, for lack of time, and 
for lack of training and proper standards of measure- 
ment, will find it almost impossible to know how 
guilty the man is, and what form of punishment and 
what amount of punishment or loss of opportunity for 
progress will be appropriate. 

Changes in Disciplinarian's Function Under Scien- 
tific Management. — All this is changed under 
Scientific Management. The disciplinarian is a spe- 
cially appointed functional foreman, and has few other 
duties except those that are directly or indirectly con- 
nected with disciplining. He is in touch with the re- 
quirements of the work, because he is in the Planning 
Department; he is in touch with the employment 
bureau, and knows which men should be employed; 
he has a determining voice in deciding elementary 
rate fixing and should always be consulted before 
wages are changed or a reassignment of duties is de- 
termined. All of these are great advantages to him 
in deciding justly and appropriately punishments and 
promotion, not for the workers alone but also for 
the foremen and the managers. 

Duties of the Disciplinarian. — The Disciplinarian 
keeps a record of each man's virtues and defects; he 
is in position to know all about the man; where he 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 71 

comes from; what his natural and acquired qualifica- 
tions are; what his good points, possibilities and spe- 
cial fitness are; what his wages are, and his need for 
them. All that it is possible for the managers to 
know of the men is to be concentrated in this dis- 
ciplinarian. He is, in practice, more the counsel and 
advocate of the worker than an unsympathetic judge, 
as is indicated by the fact that his chief function is 
that of " diplomat " and " peacemaker." His great- 
est duty is to see that the " square deal " is meted out 
without fear or favor to employer or to employe. 

Importance of Psychology in Disciplining. — Not 
only does the position of disciplinarian under Scien- 
tific Management answer the psychological require- 
ments for such a function, but also the holder of the 
position of disciplinarian must understand psychology 
and apply, at least unconsciously, and preferably 
consciously, the known laws of psychology, if he 
wishes to be successful. 

The disciplinarian must consider not only what the 
man has done and the relation of this act of his to 
his other acts ; he must also investigate the cause and 
the motive of the act, for on the cause and motive, in 
reality, depends more than on the act itself. He must 
probe into the physical condition of the man, as re- 
lated to his mental acts. He must note the effect of 
the same kind of discipline under different conditions ; 
for example, he must note that, on certain types of 
people, disciplining in the presence of other people 
has a most derogatory effect, just as rewards before 
people may have a most advantageous effect. Upon 
others, discipline that is meted out in the presence of 



72 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

other people is the only sort of discipline which has 
the desired effect. The sensitiveness of the person to 
be disciplined, the necessity for sharp discipline, and 
for that particular sort of discipline which may re- 
quire the element of shame in it, must all be con- 
sidered. He must be able to discover and note 
whether the discipline should be meted out to a ring- 
leader, and whether the other employes, supposed to 
be blameworthy, are really only guilty in acquiescing, 
or in failing to report one who has really furnished 
the initiative. He must differentiate acts which are 
the result of following a ringleader blindly from the 
concerted acts of disobedience of a crowd, for the 
" mob spirit " is always an element to be estimated 
and separately handled. 

Inadequacy of Terms in Disciplining. — The words 
" disciplinarian " and " punishment " are most un- 
fortunate. The " Disciplinarian " would be far bet- 
ter called the " peacemaker," and the " punishment " 
by some such word as the " adjustment." It is not 
the duty of the disciplinarian to " take out anybody's 
grudge " against a man; it is his duty to adjust dis- 
agreements. He must remember constantly that his 
discipline must be of such a nature that the result 
will be for the permanent best interests of the one 
disciplined, his co-workers, his associates and his 
family. 

The aim is, not to put the man down, but to keep 
him up to his standard, as will be shown later in a 
chapter on Incentives. If the punishment is in the 
form of a fine, it must not in any wa3^ return to the 
coffers of the management. The fines collected — 



FUNCTIONALIZATION *3 

even those fines collected from the individuals com- 
posing the management, should go in some form to the 
benefit of the men themselves, such, for example, as 
contributions to a workman's sick benefit fund or to 
general entertainment at the annual outing of em- 
ployes. In practice, the disciplinarian is rather the 
friend of the worker than of the employer, if the two 
interests can possibly be separated. Again " pen- 
alty " is a bad word to use. Any words used in this 
connection should preferably have had taken from 
them any feeling that personal prejudice affects the 
discipline. It is the nature of the offense itself which 
should prescribe what the outcome of it shall be. 

The position of disciplinarian requires a man who 
has a keen sense of justice, who has had such ex- 
perience as to enable him to smooth out difficulties 
until all are in a frame of mind where they can look 
upon their own acts and the acts of others calmly. 
He must be able so to administer his duties that each 
decision inspires the realization that he acted to the 
best of his knowledge and belief. He must be one 
who is fearless, and has no tendency to have favorites. 
He must have a clear knowledge of the theories and 
principles of Scientific Management, in order that he 
can fill the position of enforcer of its laws. 

The Gang Boss. — The duties of The Gang Boss 
are to see that the worker has plenty of work 
ahead, to see that everything that he will need with 
which to do the work is at hand, and to see that the 
work is actually " set," or placed and performed cor- 
rectly. This position calls for a practical demon- 
strator, who must himself be able and willing actually 



74 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

to prepare and help on the work. It calls particularly 
for a man with teaching ability, with special em- 
phasis on ability to teach, with great exactness, the 
prescribed method and to follow the orders of the 
planning department implicitly. 

The Speed Boss. — The speed boss is responsible 
for the methods of doing work with machinery. He 
has charge of overseeing the work, and teaching the 
worker, during the entire time that the work is being 
done. He must be prepared constantly to demon- 
strate at any time not only how the work is done, but 
also that it can be done in the specified time called for 
in order to earn the bonus. This position calls for a 
man who is able, personally, to carry out the detailed 
written orders of the instruction card in regard to 
speeds, feeds, cuts, methods of operation, quality and 
quantity. 

He must be proficient at the art of imparting his 
knowledge to other workmen, and at the same time 
be able to secure the prescribed outputs and quan- 
tities. He need not be the fastest worker in the shop, 
but he should be one of the most intelligent workers 
and best teachers, with a keen desire to cooperate, 
both with the workers and with the other foremen. 

The Repair Boss. — The repair boss has charge of 
the plant and its maintenance. He must have a 
natural love of order and of cleanliness, and a sys- 
tematic type of mind. This position calls for a man 
with an experience that will enable him to detect 
liability of breakdowns before they actually occur. 
He must be resourceful in repairing unexpected 
breakdowns in an emergency, and be able at all times 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 75 

to carry out literally the directions given on the in- 
struction cards of the Planning Department for clean- 
ing, maintaining, and repairing the machines. 

The Inspector. — The function of inspector under 
scientific or the Taylor plan of management is most 
important, especially in connection with the " first 
inspection." During the manufacture of the first 
piece and after it is finished the inspector passes and 
reports upon it before the worker proceeds with the 
other pieces. Here the worker gets a return in per- 
son for each successive act on the first piece he makes 
under a new instruction card, or, if he is a new worker, 
under an old instruction card. Ambiguity of instruc- 
tions, if present, is thus eliminated, and wrong ac- 
tions or results are corrected before much damage to 
material has been done and before much time and 
effort are wasted. The first erroneous cycles of work 
are not repeated, and the worker is promptly shown 
exactly how efficiently he has succeeded in determin- 
ing the requirements of his instructions. 

The inspector is responsible for the quality of the 
work. He fulfills the requirements of Schloss, who 
says, in speaking of the danger, under some manage- 
ments, that the foreman will sacrifice quality to speed, 
if he gets a bonus for quantity of output, — " The 
best safeguard against this serious danger would be 
found in the appointment of a distinct staff of in- 
spectors whose duty it should be to ascertain, as the 
work proceeds, that the stipulated standards of ex- 
cellence are at all times scrupulously maintained." 
This position of inspector requires an observant man 
who naturally is inclined to give constructive rather 



76 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

than destructive criticism. He should be a man who 
can cooperate with the workman and foreman to res- 
cue condemned or damaged material with the least 
expenditure of time, effort and expense. 

Functionalizing the Worker. — Under Scientific 
Management, the worker as well as the foreman, is 
a specialist. This he becomes by being relieved of 
everything that he is not best fitted to do, and allowed 
to concentrate upon doing, according to exact and 
scientifically derived methods, that work at which he 
is an expert. 13 

Relieving the Worker of the Planning. — The plan- 
ning is taken away from the worker, not because it is 
something too choice, sacred or entertaining for him 
to do, or something which the managers desire to do 
themselves, but because it is best, for the workers 
themselves as well as the work, that the planning be 
done by specialists at planning. If he is expert 
enough to plan, the worker will be promoted to the 
planning department. In the meantime, he is work- 
ing under the best plan that experts can devise. 

Master Planning a Life Study. — The best planner 
is he who, — other things being equal, — is the most 
ingenious, the most experienced and the best ob- 
server. It is an art to observe; it requires persistent 
attention. The longer and the more the observer ob- 
serves, the more details, and variables affecting de- 

13 C. Babbage, Economy of Manufacturers, p. 172. " The con- 
stant repetition of the same process necessarily produces in the 
workman a degree of excellence and rapidity in his particular de- 
partment, which is never possessed by a person who is obliged to 
execute many different processes," 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 77 

tails, he observes. The untrained observer could not 
expect to compete with one of special natural talent 
who has also been trained. It is not every man who 
is fitted by nature to observe closely, hence to plan. 
To observe is a condition precedent to visualizing. 
Practice in visualizing makes for increasing the fac- 
ulty of constructive imagination. He with the best 
constructive imagination is the master planner. 

The art of observing is founded on a study of funda- 
mental elements. In order that planning may be 
done best, previous to starting work, the entire se- 
quence of operations must be laid out, so that the 
ideas of value of every element of every subdivision 
of the process of working may be corrected to act 
most efficiently in relation with each and all of the 
subsequent parts and events that are to follow. This 
planning forwards and backwards demands an equip- 
ment of time study, motion study and micro-motion 
study records such as can be used economically only 
when all the planning is done in one place, with one 
set of records. The planner must be able to see and 
control the whole problem in all of its aspects. 

For example, — the use that is to be made of the 
work after it is completed may entirely change the 
methods best used in doing it. Thus, the face of a 
brick wall that is to be plastered does not require and 
should not have the usual excellence of nicely ruled 
joints required on a face that is not to be plastered. 
In fact, the roughest, raggedest joints will be that 
quality of wall that will make the plaster adhere the 
best. 



78 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

As an example of professional observation and in- 
vestigation with which no untrained observer could 
compete, we cite the epoch making work of Dr. 
Taylor in determining the most efficient speeds, 
feeds, cuts and shape of tools to use for the least 
wastefulness in cutting metals. 14 

Dr. Taylor, an unusually brilliant man, at the end 
of twenty-six years, working with the best scientists, 
engineers, experimenters, and workmen, after an ex- 
penditure of literally hundreds of thousands of dol- 
lars, was able to determine and write down a method 
for cutting metals many times less wasteful in time 
than was ever known before; but the data from the 
experiments was so complex and involved that a 
considerable knowledge of higher mathematics had 
to be used to apply the data. Furthermore, the data 
was in such form that it took longer to use the knowl- 
edge contained therein than it did to do the work on 
any given piece of metal cutting. After gathering 
this knowledge, Dr. Taylor, with his assistants, first 
Mr. Gantt and finally Mr. Barth, reduced it to such 
a form that now it can be used in a matter of a few 
seconds or minutes. This was done by making slide 
rules. 15 Today workers have this knowledge in a 
form that any machinist can use with a little in- 
struction. As a result, Dr. Taylor's observations 
have revolutionized the design of metal cutting ma- 
chinery and the metal cutting industry, and the data 

14 F. W. Taylor, On the Art of Cutting Metals. Paper No. 1119, 
A. S. M. E. 

15 C. G. Barth, Slide Rules for Machine Shops and Taylor Sys- 
tem. Paper No. ioio, A. S. M. E. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 79 

he collected is used in every metal cutting planning 
department. 

Furthermore, as a by-product to his observations 
and investigations, he discovered the Taylor- White 
process of making high speed steel, which revolu- 
tionized the steel tool industry. No untrained work- 
man could expect ever to compete with such work as 
this in obtaining results for most efficient planning 
and at the same time perform his ordinary work. 

Wastefulness of Individual Planning. — Even if it 
were possible so to arrange the work of every worker 
that he could be in close proximity to the equipment 
for planning and could be given the training needed, 
individual planning for " small lots " with no sys- 
tematized standardization of planning-results would 
be an economic waste that would cause an unneces- 
sary hardship on the worker, the employer and the 
ultimate consumer. Individual planning could not 
fit the broad scheme of planning, and at best would 
cause delays and confusion, and make an incentive 
to plan for the individual self, instead of planning 
for the greatest good of the greatest number. 

Again, even if it were possible to plan best by in- 
dividual planning, there is a further waste in chang- 
ing from one kind of work to another. This waste is 
so great and so obvious that it was noticed and rec- 
ognized by the earliest manufacturers and econo- 
mists. 

Hardship to the Worker of Individual Plan- 
ning. — To obtain the most wages and profits there 
must be the most savings to divide. These cannot 
be obtained when each man plans for himself (ex- 



80 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

cept in the home trades), because all large modern 
operations have the quantity of output dependent 
upon the amount of blockades, stoppages and inter- 
ferences caused by dependent sequences. It is not, 
therefore, possible to obtain the most profit or most 
wages by individual planning. Planning is a general 
function, and the only way to obtain the best re- 
sults is by organized planning, and by seeing that no 
planning is done for one worker without proper con- 
sideration of its bearing and effect upon any or all 
the other men's outputs. 

The Man Who Desires to Be a Planner Can Be 
One. — If the worker is the sort of a man who can 
observe and plan, or who desires to plan, even though 
he is not at first employed in the planning depart- 
ment, he is sure to get there finally, as the system 
provides that each man shall go where he is best 
fitted. Positions in planning departments are hard 
to fill, because of the scarcity of men equipped to 
do this work. The difficulty of teaching men to be- 
come highly efficient planners is one of the reasons 
for the slow advance of the general adoption of 
Scientific Management. 

The Man Who Dislikes Planning Can Be Re- 
lieved. — It must not be forgotten that many people 
dislike the planning responsibility in connection with 
their work. For such, relief from planning makes 
the performance of the planned work more interest- 
ing and desirable. 

Provision for Planning by All Under Scientific 
Management. — Much has been said about the 
worker's " God-given rights to think," and about the 



PUNCTIONALIZATION 61 

necessity for providing every worker with an op- 
portunity to think. 

Scientific Management provides the fullest oppor- 
tunities for every man to think, to exercise his mental 
faculties, and to plan 

i. in doing the work itself, as will be shown at 
length in chapters that follow. 

2. outside of the regular working hours, but in 
connection with promotion in his regular work. 

Scientific Management provides always, and most 
emphatically, that the man shall have hours free 
from his work in such a state that he will not be too 
fatigued to do anything. Furthermore, if he work 
as directed, his number of working hours per day will 
be so reduced that he will have more time each day 
for his chosen form of mental stimulus and improve- 
ment. 

Our friend John Brashear is a most excellent ex- 
ample of what one can do in after hours away from 
his work. He was a laborer in a steel mill. His duties 
were not such as resemble in any way planning or 
research work, yet he became one of the world's most 
prominent astronomical thinkers and an Honorary 
member of the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, because he had the desire to be a student. 
Under Scientific Management such a desire receives 
added impetus from the method of attack provided 
for through its teaching. 

Functionalizing the Work Itself. — The work of 
each part of the planning and performing depart- 
ments may be functionalized, or subdivided, as the 
result of motion study and time study. The ele- 



82 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

mentary timed units are combined or synthesized 
into tasks, made to fit the capabilities of specialized 
workers. It is then necessary to : — 

i. List the duties and requirements of the work. 

2. Decide whether the place can be best handled 
as one, or subdivided into several further subdi- 
visions, or functions, or even sub-functions, for two 
or more function specialists. 

For the sake of analysis, all work may be con- 
sidered as of one of two classes: — 

i. the short time job. 

2. the long time job. 
These two divisions are handled differently, as fol- 
lows: 

The Short Time Job. — On the short time job that 
probably will never be repeated, there is little op- 
portunity and no economic reason for specially train- 
ing a man for its performance. The available man 
best suited to do the work with little or no help 
should be chosen to do it. The suitability of the 
man for the work should be determined only by ap- 
plying simple tests, or, if even these will cause costly 
delay or more expense than the work warrants, the 
man who appears suitable and who most desires the 
opportunity to do the work can be assigned to it. 

If the job is connected with a new art, a man 
whose habits will help him can be chosen. 

For example : — in selecting a man to fly, it has 
been found advantageous to give a trick bicycle 
rider the preference. 

There is no other reason why the man for the 
short job should not be fitted as well to his work as 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 83 

the man for the long job, except the all-important 
reason of cost for special preparation. Any expense 
for study of the workers must be borne ultimately 
both by worker and management, and it is undesir- 
able to both that expense should be incurred which 
will not be ultimately repaid. 

The Long Time Job. — The long time job allows 
of teaching, therefore applicants for it may be care- 
fully studied. Usually that man should be chosen 
who, with all the natural qualifications and capabili- 
ties for the job, except practical skill, requires the 
most teaching to raise him from the lower plane to 
that highest mental and manual plane which he is 
able to fill successfully continuously. In this way 
each man will be developed into a worker of great 
value to the management and to himself. 

The man who is capable and already skilled at 
some work is thus available for a still higher job, for 
which he can be taught. Thus the long job affords 
the greatest opportunity for promotion. The long 
job justifies the expenditure of money, effort and 
time by management and men, and is the ideal field 
for the application of scientific selection and func- 
tionalization. 

SUMMARY 

Effect of Functionalization upon the Work. — Un- 
der Traditional Management, there was little or no 
definite functionalization. If the quantity of output 
did increase, as the result of putting a man at that 
work for which he seemed best fitted, there was 
seldom provision made for seeing that the quality of 



84 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

product was maintained by a method of constructive 
inspection that prevented downward deviations from 
standard quality, instead of condemning large quanti- 
ties of the finished product. 

Under Transitory Management, the Department of 
Inspection is one of the first Functions installed. 
This assures maintained quality, and provides that 
all increase in output shall be actual gain. 

Under Scientific Management, functionalization re- 
sults in increased quantity of output, 16 with main- 
tained and usually increased quality. 17 This results 
in decreased cost. The cost is sufficiently lower to 
allow of increased wages to the employes, a further 
profit to the employer, and a maintained, or low- 
ered, selling price. This means a benefit to the con- 
sumer. 

It may be objected that costs cannot be lowered, 
because of the number of so-called " non-producers " 
provided for by Scientific Management. 

In answer to this it may be said that there are no 
non-producers under Scientific Management. Cor- 
responding work that, under Scientific Management, 
is done in the planning department must all be done 
somewhere, in a less systematic manner, even under 
Traditional Management. 18 The planning depart- 

16 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 19. 

17 Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, p. 2. " The greatest improve- 
ment in the productive powers of labor, and the greater part of the 
skill, dexterity, and judgment, with which it is anywhere directed, 
or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labor." 
Also p. 4. 

18 H. K. Hathaway, The Value of "Non-Producers" in Manu- 
facturing Plants. Machinery, Nov., 1906, p. 134. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 85 

ment, simply does this work more efficiently, — with 
less waste. Moreover, much work of the planning 
department, being founded on elementary units, is 
available for constant use. Here results an emor- 
mous saving by the conservation and utilization of 
planning effort. 

Also, standard methods are more apt to result in 
standard quality, and with less occasion for rejecting 
output that is below the requisite standards than is 
the case under Traditional Management. 

Effect of Functionalization upon the Worker. — 
Under Traditional Management, even if the worker 
often becomes functionalized, he seldom has as- 
surance that he will be able to reap the harvest from 
remaining so, and even so, neither data nor teaching 
are provided to enable him to fulfill his function most 
successfully. 

Under Transitory Management the worker be- 
comes more and more functionalized, as the results 
of motion study and time study make clear the ad- 
vantages of specializing the worker. 

Effects upon the Scientifically Managed Worker. — 
Under Scientific Management the effects of Func- 
tionalization are so universal and so far reaching that 
it is necessary to enumerate them in detail. 

Worker Relieved of Everything but His Special 
Functions. — Functionalization, in providing that 
every man is assigned a special function, also pro- 
vides that he be called upon to do work in that func- 
tion only, relieving him of all other work and re- 
sponsibility. Realization of this elimination has a 



8G THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

psychological effect on action and habits of think- 
ing. 19 
Places are Provided for Specialists. — Func- 

tionalization utilizes men with decided bents, and 
allows each man to occupy that place for which he is 
fitted. 20 Assignment to functions is done according 
to the capabilities and desires of those who are to 
fill them. 

Specializing Is Encouraged. — It is most important 
to remember that the man with any special talent 
or talents, individuality or special fitness is much 
more likely, under Scientific Management, to obtain 
and retain the place that he is fitted for than he ever 
could have been under Traditional Management, for, 
while many fairly efficient men can be found who can 
fill a general position, a man with the marked de- 
sirable trait necessary to fill a distinct position re- 
quiring that trait, will be one of few, and will have 
his place waiting for him. 

One-Talent Men Utilized. — With Functionaliza- 
tion, men who lack qualifications for the position 
which they may, at the start, endeavor to fill, may 
be transferred to other positions, where the qualities 
they lack are not required. If a man has one talent, 
Scientific Management provides a place where that 
can be utilized. 

For example : — 

Men who cannot produce the prescribed out- 

19 Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, 
p. II. 

20 Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, Carnegie Foundation 
for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 15. 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 87 

put constantly, are placed on other work. The slow, 
unskilled worker who has difficulty to learn, may be 
put upon work requiring less skill, or where speed is 
not required so much as watchfulness and faithful- 
ness. The worker who is slow, but exceptionally 
skilled, has the opportunity to rise to the position of 
the functional foreman, especially in the planning de- 
partment, where knowledge, experience and resource- 
fulness, and especially ability to teach, are much more 
desired than speed and endurance. Thus there are 
places provided, below and above, that can utilize 
all kinds of abilities. 

" All Round " Men Are Utilized. — The exceptional 
man who possesses executive ability in all lines, and 
balance between them all, is the ideal man for a 
manager, and his special " all round " ability would 
be wasted in any position below that of a man- 
ager. 

Stability Provided For. — Every man is maintained 
in his place by his interresponsibility with other men. 
If he is a worker, every man's work is held to stand- 
ard quality by the inspector, while the requirements 
and rewards of his function are kept before him by 
the instruction card man, rate fixer and the disci- 
plinarian. 

Promotion and Development Provided For. — 
Functionalization provides for promotion by show- 
ing every man not only the clearly circumscribed 
place where he is to work, but also by showing him 
the definite place above him to which he may be 
promoted and its path, and by teaching him how he 
can fill it. This allows him to develop the possibili- 



88 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ties of his best self by using and specially training 
those talents which are most marked in him. 

Functional Foremanship allows many more people 
to become foremen, and to develop the will and judg- 
ment which foremanship implies. 

Men in the Organization Preferred to Outsiders. — 
Men in the organization are preferable to outsiders 
as functional foremen and for promotion. Not only 
does a worker's knowledge of his work help him to 
become more efficient when he is promoted to the 
position of foreman, — but his efficiency as a teacher 
is also increased by the fact that he knows and un- 
derstands the workers whom he is there to teach. 

All Men Are Pushed Up. — Scientific Management 
raises every man as high as he is capable of being 
raised. It does not speed him up, but pushes him 
up to the highest notch which he can fill. Actual 
practice has shown that there is a greater demand for 
efficient men in the planning department than there 
is supply; also, that men in the planning department 
who fit themselves for higher work can be readily 
promoted to positions of greater responsibility, either 
inside or outside the organization. 

Years of Productivity Prolonged. — Under Func- 
tionalization the number of years of productivity of 
all, workers and foremen alike, are increased. The 
specialty to which the man is assigned is his natural 
specialty, thus his possible and profitable working 
years are prolonged, because he is at that work for 
which he is naturally fitted. 

Moreover, the work of teaching is one at which 
the teacher becomes more clever and- more valuable 



FUNCTIONALIZATION 89 

as time goes on, the functional foreman has that much 
more chance to become valuable as years go by. 

Change in the Worker's Mental Attitude. — The 
work under functionalization is such as to arouse 
the worker's attention and to hold his interest. 21 
But the most important and valuable change in the 
worker's feelings is the change in his attitude towards 
the foremen and the employer. From " natural 
enemies " as sometimes considered under typical Tra- 
ditional Management, these all now become friends, 
with the common aim, cooperation, for the purpose 
of increasing output and wages, and lowering costs. 
This change of feeling results in an appreciation of 
the value of teaching, and also in promoting industrial 
peace. 

21 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 120. 



CHAPTER IV 
MEASUREMENT 

Definition of Measurement. — " Measurement," ac- 
cording to the Century Dictionary, — " is the act of 
measuring," and to measure is — " to ascertain the 
length, extent, dimensions, quantity or capacity of, 
by comparison with a standard; ascertain or deter- 
mine a quantity by exact observation," or, again, 
" to estimate or determine the relative extent, great- 
ness or value of, appraise by comparison with some- 
thing else." 

Measurement Important in Psychology. — Meas- 
urement has always been of importance in psy- 
chology; but it is only with the development of ex- 
perimental psychology and its special apparatus, that 
methods of accurate measurements are available 
which make possible the measurement of extremely 
short periods of time, or measurements " quick as 
thought." These enable us to measure the varia- 
tions of different workers as to their abilities and 
their mental and physical fatigue ; x to study mental 
processes at different stages of mental and physical 
growth ; to compare different people under the same 
conditions, and the same person under different con- 

1 Hugo Miinsterberg, American Problems, p. 34. 

90 



MEASUREMENT 91 

ditions; to determine the personal coefficient of dif- 
ferent workers, specialists and foremen, and to 
formulate resultant standards. As in all other 
branches of science, the progress comes with the 
development of measurement. 

Methods of Measurement in Psychology. — No 
student of management, and of measurement in the 
field of management, can afford not to study, care- 
fully and at length, methods of measurement under 
psychology. This, for at least two most important 
reasons, which will actually improve him as a meas- 
urer, i. e. — 

1. The student will discover, in the books on ex- 
perimental psychology and in the " Psychological 
Review," a marvelous array of results of scientific 
laboratory experiments in psychology, which will be 
of immediate use to him in his work. 

2. He will receive priceless instruction in methods 
of measuring. No where better than in the field of 
psychology, can one learn to realize the importance 
of measurements, the necessity for determination of 
elements for study, and the necessity for accurate 
apparatus and accuracy in observation. 

Prof. George M. Stratton, in his book " Experi- 
mental Psychology and Culture," — says " In mental 
measurements, therefore, there is no pretense of tak- 
ing the mind's measure as a whole, nor is there 
usually any immediate intention of testing even some 
special faculty or capacity of the individual. What 
is aimed at is the measurement of a limited event 
in consciousness, such as a particular perception or 
feeling. The experiments are addressed, of course, 



92 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

not to the weight or size of such phenomena, but 
usually to their duration and intensity." 2 

The emphasis laid on a study of elements is further 
shown in the same book by the following, — " The 
actual laboratory work in time-measurement, how- 
ever, has been narrowed down to determining, not 
the time in general that is occupied by some mental 
action, but rather the shortest possible time in which 
a particular operation, like discrimination or choice 
or association or recognition, can be performed un- 
der the simplest and most favorable circumstances. 3 
The experimental results here are something like 
speed or racing records, made under the best con- 
ditions of track and training. A delicate chrono- 
graph or chronoscope is used, which marks the time 
in thousandths of a second." 

Measurement in Psychology Related to Measure- 
ment in Management. — Measurement in psychol- 
ogy is of importance to measurement in manage- 
ment not only as a source of information and instruc- 
tion, but also as a justification and support. Scien- 
tific Management has suffered from being called ab- 
surd, impractical, impossible, over-exact, because of 
the emphasis which it lays on measurement. Yet, to 
the psychologist, all present measurement in Scien- 
tific Management must appear coarse, inaccurate and 
of immediate and passing value only. With the 
knowledge that psychologists endorse accurate 
measurement, and will cooperate in discovering ele- 

2 G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Its Bearing upon 
Culture, p. 27- 
*Ibid., p.- 38. 



MEASUREMENT $3 

ments for study, instruments of precision and 
methods of investigation, the investigator in in- 
dustrial fields must persist in his work with a new 
interest and confidence. 4 

Scientific Management cannot hope to furnish psy- 
chology with either data or methods of measurement. 
It can and does, however, open a new field for study 
to experimental psychology, and shows itself willing 
to furnish the actual working difficulties or problems, 
to do the preliminary investigation, and to utilize re- 
sults as fast as they can be obtained. 

Psychologists Appreciate Scientific Management. — 
The appreciation which psychologists have shown 
of work done by Scientific Management must be not 
only a matter of gratification, but of inspiration to 
all workers in Scientific Management. 

So, also, must the new divisions of the Index to the 
Psychological Review relating to Activity and 
Fatigue, and the work being so extensively done in 
these lines by French, German, Italian and other na- 
tions, as well as by English and American psychol- 
ogists. 

Measurement Important in Management. — The 
study of individuality and of functionalization have 
made plain the necessity of measurement for success- 
ful management. Measurement furnishes the means 
for obtaining that accurate knowledge upon which 
the science of management rests, as do all sciences 
— exact and inexact. 3 Through measurement, meth- 

4 For apparatus for psychological experiment see Stratton, p. 38, 
p. 171, p. 265. 

5 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 15. 



g 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ods of less waste are determined, standards are 
made possible, and management becomes a science, 
as it derives standards, and progressively makes and 
improves them, and the comparisons from them, ac- 
curate. 

Problem of Measurement in Management. — One 
of the important problems of measurement in man- 
agement is determining how many hours should con- 
stitute the working day in each different kind of work 
and at what gait the men can work for greatest out- 
put and continuously thrive. The solution of this 
problem involves the study of the men, the work, 
and the methods, which study must become more 
and more specialized; but the underlying aim is to 
determine standards and individual capacity as ex- 
actly as is possible. 6 

Capacity. — There are at least four views of a 
worker's capacity. 

i. What he thinks his capacity is. 

2. What his associates think his capacity is. 

3. What those over him think his capacity is. 

4. What accurate measurement determines his 
actual capacity to be. 

Ignorance of Real Capacity. — Dr. Taylor has em- 
phasized the fact that the average workman does not 
know either his true efficiency or his true capacity. 7 
The experience of others has also gone to show that 
even the skilled workman has little or inaccurate 
knowledge of the amount of output that a good 

6 Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, The Carnegie Founda- 
tion for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 7. 
7 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 29. Harper Ed., p„ 25. 



MEASUREMENT 95 

worker can achieve at his chosen vocation in a given 
time. 8 

For example, — until a bricklayer has seen his out- 
put counted for several days, he has little idea of how 
many bricks he can lay, or has laid, in a day. 9 

The average manager is usually even more igno- 
rant of the capacity of the workers than are the men 
themselves. 10 This is because of the prevalence of, 
and the actual necessity for the worker's best in- 
terest, under some forms of management, of " sol- 
diering." Even when the manager realizes that sol- 
diering is going on, he has no way, especially under 
ordinary management, of determining its extent. 

Little Measurement in Traditional Management. — 
Under Traditional Management there was little meas- 
urement of a man's capacity. The emphasis was en- 
tirely on the results. There was, it is true, in every- 
thing beyond the most elementary of Traditional 
Management, a measurement of the result. The 
manager did know, at the end of certain periods of 
time, how much work had been done, and how much 
it had cost him. This was a very important thing for 
him to know. If his cost ran too high, and his out- 
put fell too low, he investigated. If he found a de- 
fect, he tried to remedy it; but much time had to be 
wasted in this investigation, because often he had no 
idea where to start in to look for the defects. The 
result of the defects was usually the cause for the 
inquiry as to their presence. 

8 H. L. Gantt, Paper No. 928, A. S. M. E., para. 6. 

9 F. B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System. 

10 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 61. Harper Ed., p. 33. 



96 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

He might investigate the men, he might investigate 
the methods, he might investigate the equipment, he 
might investigate the surroundings, and so on, — and 
very often in the mind of the Traditional manager, 
there was not even this most elementary division. 
If things went wrong he simply knew, — " Something 
is wrong somewhere," and it was the work of the 
foremen to find out where the place was, or so to 
speed up the men that the output should be increased 
and the cost lowered. Whether the defects were 
really remedied, or simply concealed by temporarily 
speeding up, was not seriously questioned. 

Moreover, until measuring devices are secured, the 
only standard is what someone thinks about things, 
and the pity of it is that even this condition does not 
remain staple. 

Transitory Management Realizes Value of Meas- 
urement. — One of the first improvements introduced 
when Traditional Management gives place to the 
Transitory stage is the measurement of the separated 
output of individual workers. These outputs are 
measured and recorded. The records for extra high 
outputs are presented to the worker promptly, so that 
he may have a keen idea constantly of the relation of 
effort to output, while the fatigue and the effort of 
doing the work is still fresh in his mind. 

The psychology of the prompt reward will be con- 
sidered later at length, but it cannot be emphasized 
too often that the prompter the reward, the greater 
the stimulus. The reward will become associated 
with the fatigue in such a way that the worker will 
really get, at the time, more satisfaction out of his 



MEASUREMENT 97 

fatigue than he will discomfort; at the least, any dis- 
satisfaction over his fatigue will be eliminated, by 
the constant and first thought of the reward which he 
has gotten through his efforts. 

This record of efficiency is often so presented to 
the workers that they get an excellent idea of the 
numerical measure of their efficiency and its trend. 
This is best done by a graphical chart. 

The records of the outputs of others on the same 
kind of work done concurrently, or a corresponding 
record on work done previously, will show the rela- 
tive efficiency of any worker as compared with the 
rest. These standards of comparison are a strong 
incentive and, if they are shown at the time that such 
work is done, they also become so closely associated 
not only with the mental but the bodily feeling of 
the man that the next time the work is repeated, the 
thoughts that the same effort will probably bring 
greater results, and that it has done so in the past 
with others, will be immediately present in the mind. 

Measurement Is Basic Under Scientific Manage- 
ment. — Under Scientific Management measurement 
is basic. Measurement is of the work, of outputs, of 
the methods, the tools, and of the worker, with the 
individual as a unit, and motion study, time study and 
micro-motion study and the chrono-cyclegraph as the 
methods of measurement. 

Measurement is a most necessary adjunct to select- 
ing the workers and the managers and to assigning 
them to the proper functions and work. They can- 
not be selected to the greatest advantage and set to 
functionalized work until — 



9 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

(a) the unit of measurement that will of itself 
tend to reduce costs has been determined. 

(b) methods of measurement have been deter- 
mined, 

(c) measurement has been applied. 

(d) standards for measurement have been de- 
rived. 

(e) devices for cheapening the cost of measur- 
ing have been installed. 

Under Scientific Management Measurement De- 
termines the Task. — An important aim of measure- 
ment under Scientific Management is to determine 
the Task, or the standard amount of any kind of 
work that a first class man can do in a certain pe- 
riod of time. The " standard amount " is the larg- 
est amount that a first class man can do and con- 
tinuously thrive. 

The " first-class " man is the man who can even- 
tually become best fitted, by means of natural and ac- 
quired capabilities, to do the work. The " certain 
period of time " is that which best suits the work 
and the man's thriving under the work. The amount 
of time allowed for a task consists of three parts — 

i. time actually spent at work. 

2. time for rest for overcoming fatigue. 

3. time for overcoming delays. 

Measurement must determine what percentage of the 
task time is to be spent at work and what at rest, and 
must also determine whether the rest period should 
all follow the completed work, or should be divided 
into parts, these parts to follow certain cycles through 
the entire work period. 



MEASUREMENT 99 

The method of constructing the task is discussed 
under two chapters that follow, Analysis and Syn- 
thesis, and Standardization. Here we note only that 
the task is built up of elementary units measured by 
motion study, time study, and micro-motion study. 

When this standard task has been determined the 
worker's efficiency can be measured by his perform- 
ance of, or by the amount that he exceeds, the 
task. 

Qualifications of the Observer or Measurer. — The 
position of observer, or as he has well been called, 
" trade revolutionizer," should be filled by a man 
specially selected for the position on account of his 
special natural fitness and previous experience. He 
also should be specially trained for his work. As 
in all other classes of work, the original selection of 
the man is of vital importance. The natural qualities 
of the successful hunter, fisherman, detective, re- 
porter and woodsman for observation of minute de- 
tails are extremely desirable. It is only by having 
intimate knowledge of such experiences as Agassiz 
had with his pupils, or with untrained " observers " 
of the trade, that one can realize the lack of powers 
of observation of detail in the average human be- 
ing. 

Other natural qualifications required to an efficient 
observer are that of being 

(a) an " eye worker " ; 

(b) able to concentrate attention for unusually 
long periods; 

(c) able to get every thought out of a simple 
written sentence; 



ioo THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

(d) keenly interested in his work; 

(e) accurate; 

(f) possessed of infinite patience; 

(g) an enthusiastic photographer. 

The measurer or observer should, preferably, have 
the intimate knowledge that comes from personal 
experience of the work to be observed, although such 
a man is often difficult if not impossible to obtain. 

The position of observer illustrates another of the 
many opportunities of the workmen for promotion 
from the ranks to higher positions when they are 
capable of holding the promotion. Naturally, other 
things being equal, no man is so well acquainted with 
the work to be observed as he who has actually done 
it himself, and if he have also the qualifications of the 
worker at the work, which should, in the future, 
surely be determined by study of him and by voca- 
tional guidance, he will be able to go at once from 
his position in the ranks to that of observer, or time 
study man. 

The observer must also familiarize himself with the 
literature regarding motion study and time study, and 
must form the habit of recording systematically the 
minutest details observable. 

The effect upon the man making the observation 
of knowing that his data, even though at the time 
they may seem unimportant, can be used for the de- 
duction of vital laws, is plain. He naturally feels 
that he is a part of a permanent scheme, and is ready 
and willing to put his best activity into the work. 
The benefits accruing from this fact have been so 
well recognized in making United States surveys and 



MEASUREMENT 101 

charts, that the practice has been to have the name of 
the man in charge of the work printed on them. 

Anyone Interested May Become an Observer. — A 
review of the mental equipment needed by a meas- 
urer, or observer, will show that much may be done 
toward training oneself for such a position by prac- 
tice. Much pleasure as well as profit can be obtained 
by acquiring the habit of observation, both in the 
regular working and in the non-working hours. Vo- 
cational Guidance Bureaus should see that this habit 
of observation is cultivated, not only for the aesthetic 
pleasure which it gives, but also for its permanent 
usefulness. 

Unbiased Observation Necessary. — In order to 
take observations properly, the investigator should 
be absolutely impartial, unprejudiced, and unbiased 
by any preconceived notions. Otherwise, he will be 
likely to think that a certain thing ought to happen. 
Or he may have a keen desire to obtain a certain re- 
sult to conform to a pet theory. In other words, the 
observer must be of a very stable disposition. He 
must not be carried away by his observations. 

The elimination of any charting by the man who 
makes the observations, or at least its postponement 
until all observations are made, will tend to decrease 
the dangers of unconscious effect of what he con- 
siders the probable curve of the observations should 
be. 

As has been well said, watching the curve to be 
charted before all of the data have been obtained de- 
velops a distinct theory in the mind of the investi- 
gator and is apt to " bend the curve " or, at least, to 



102 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

develop a feeling that if any new, or special, data do 
not agree with the tendency of the curve — so much 
the worse for the reputation of the data for relia- 
bility. 

Observed Worker Should Realize the Purpose of 
the Measurement. — The observed worker should be 
made to realize the purpose and importance of the 
measurement. The observing should always be done 
with his full knowledge and hearty cooperation. He 
will attain much improvement by intelligent coopera- 
tion with the observer, and may, in turn, be able to 
be promoted to observing if he is interested enough 
to study and prepare himself after hours. 

Worker Should Never Be Observed Surrepti- 
tiously. — No worker should ever be observed, timed 
and studied surreptitiously. In the first place, if the 
worker does not know that he is being observed, he 
cannot cooperate with the observer to see that the 
methods observed are methods of least waste. 
Therefore the motion study and time study records 
that result will not be fundamental standards in any 
case and will probably be worthless. 

In the second place, if the worker discovers that 
he is being observed secretly, he will feel that he is 
being spied upon and is not being treated fairly. 
The stop watch has too long been associated with 
the idea of " taking the last drop of blood from the 
worker." Secret observations will tend strongly to 
lend credence to this idea. Even should the worker 
thus observed not think that he was being watched 
in order to force him, at a later time, to make higher 
outputs, after he has once learned that he is being 



MEASUREMENT 103 

watched secretly, his attention will constantly be 
distracted by the thought that perhaps he is being 
studied and timed again. He will be constantly on 
the alert to see possible observers. This may result 
in " speeding him up," but the speed will not be a 
legitimate speed, that results to his good as well as 
to that of his employer. 

Worst of all, he will lose confidence in the " square- 
ness " of his employer. Hence he will fail to co- 
operate, and one of the greatest advantages of Scien- 
tific Management will thus be lost. 

It is a great advantage of micro-motion study that 
it demands cooperation of the man studied, and that 
its results are open to study by all. 

An Expert Best Worker to Observe. — The best 
worker to observe for time study is he who is so 
skilled that he can perform a cycle of prescribed stand- 
ard motions automatically, without mental concen- 
tration. This enables him to devote his entire 
mental activity to deviating the one desired variable 
from the accepted cycle of motions. 

The difficulty in motion study and time study is 
not so often to vary the variable being observed and 
studied, as it is to maintain the other variables con- 
stant. Neither skill nor appreciation of what is 
wanted is enough alone. The worker who is to be 
measured successfullly must 

1. have the required skill. 

2. understand the theory of what is being done. 

3. be willing to cooperate. 

Everyone Should Be Trained in Being Measured. — . 
Accurate measurement of individuals, in actual prac- 



104 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tice, brings out the fact that lamentably few persons 
are accustomed to be, or can readily be, measured. 
It has been a great drawback to the advance of Scien- 
tific Management that the moment a measurer of any 
kind is put on the work, either a device to measure 
output or a man to measure or to time reactions, mo- 
tions, or output, the majority of the workers become 
suspicious. Being unaccustomed to being measured, 
they think, as is usually the case with things to which 
we are unaccustomed, that there is something harm- 
ful to them in it. This feeling makes necessary 
much explanation which in reality should not be 
needed. 

The remedy for this condition is a proper training 
in youth. A boy brought up with the fundamental 
idea of the importance of measurement to all mod- 
ern science, for all progress, accustomed to being 
measured, understanding the " why " of the measur- 
ing, and the results from it, will not hesitate or ob- 
ject, when he comes to the work, to being measured 
in order that he may be put where it is best for him- 
self, as well as for the work, that he be put. 

The importance of human measurement to voca- 
tional guidance and to the training of the young for 
life work has never been properly realized. Few peo- 
ple understand the importance of psychological ex- 
periment as a factor in scientific vocational guidance. 
For this alone, it will probably in time be a general 
custom to record and keep as close track as possible 
of the psychological measurements of the child dur- 
ing the period of education, vocational guidance and 
apprenticeship. Not only this, but he also should be 



MEASUREMENT 105 

accustomed to being measured, physically and psy- 
chologically, from his first years, just as he is now ac- 
customed to being weighed. 

The child should be taught to measure himself, 
his faculties, his reactions, his capabilities as con- 
pared with his former self and as compared with the 
capabilities of others. It is most important that the 
child should form a habit not only of measuring, but 
of being measured. 

Motion Study and Time Study Are the Method of 
Measurement Under Scientific Management. — Under 
Scientific Management, much measuring is done by 
motion study and time study, which measure the rela- 
tive efficiency of various men, of various methods, or 
of various kinds of equipment, surroundings, tools, 
etc. Their most important use is as measuring de- 
vices of the men. They have great psychological 
value in that they are founded on the " square deal " 
and the men know this from the start. Being 
operated under laws, they are used the same way on 
all sorts of work and on all men. As soon as the 
men really understand this fact, and realize 

1. that the results are applied to all men equally; 

2. that all get an ample compensation for what 
they do; 

3. that under them general welfare is considered; 
the objections to such study will vanish. 

Motion Study Is Determining Methods of Least 
Waste. — Motion Study is the dividing of the ele- 
ments of the work into the most fundamental sub- 
divisions possible ; studying these fundamental units 
separately and in relation to one another; and from 



io6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

these studied, chosen units, when timed, building up 
methods of least waste. 

Time Study Is Determining Standard Unit 
Times. — Time study consists of timing the elements 
of the best method known, and, from these ele- 
mentary unit times, synthesizing a standard time in 
which a standard man can do a certain piece of work 
in accordance with the finally accepted method. 

Micro-motion study is timing sub-divisions, or ele- 
ments of motions by carrying out the principles of 
motion study to a greater degree of accuracy by 
means of a motion picture camera, a clock that will 
record different times of day in each picture of a mov- 
ing picture film together with a cross sectioned back- 
ground and other devices for assisting in measuring 
the relative efficiency and wastefulness of motions. It 
also is the cheapest, quickest and more accurate 
method of recording indisputable time study records. 
It has the further advantage of being most useful in 
assisting the instruction card man to devise methods 
of least waste. 11 

Motion Study and Time Study Measure Individual 
Efficiency. — Motion Study and Time Study measure 
individual capacity or efficiency by providing data 
from which standards can be made. These standards 
made, the degree to which the individual approaches 
or exceeds the standard can be determined. 

Motion Study and Time Study Measure Meth- 
ods. — Motion Study and Time Study are devices for 
measuring methods. By their use, old methods are 
" tried out," once and for all, and their relative value 

11 Industrial Engineering, Jan., 1913. 



MEASUREMENT 107 

in efficiency, determined. By their use, also, new 
methods are " tried out." This is most important 
under Scientific Management. 

Any new method suggested can be tested in a short 
time. Such elements of it as have already been 
tested, can be valued at the start, the new elements 
introduced can be motion studied and time studied, 
and waste eliminated to as great an extent as pos- 
sible, with no loss of time or thought. 

Under Scientific Management, the men who under- 
stand what motion study and time study mean, know 
that their suggested methods will be tested, not only 
fairly, but so effectively that they, and everyone else, 
can know at once exactly the worth of their sug- 
gestions. 

Comparison of Methods Fosters Invention. — The 
value of such comparative study can be seen at a 
glance. When one such method after another is 
tried out, not only can one tell quickly what a new 
method is worth, but can also determine what it is 
worth compared to all others which have been con- 
sidered. This is because the study is a study of ele- 
ments, primarily, and not of methods as a whole. 
Not only can suggested methods be estimated, but 
also new methods which have never been suggested 
will become apparent themselves through this study. 
Common elements, being at once classified and set 
aside, the new ones will make themselves prominent, 
and better methods for doing work will suggest them- 
selves, especially to the inventive mind. 

Books of Preliminary Data Needed. — In order that 
this investigation may be best fostered, not only must 



108 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

books of standards be published, but also books of 
preliminary data, which other workers may attack if 
they desire, and where they can. find common ele- 
ments. Such books of preliminary data are needed 
on all subjects. 12 

Motion Study and Time Study Measure Equipment 
and Tools. — Time and motion study are meas- 
uring devices for ascertaining relative merits of differ- 
ent kinds of equipment, surroundings and tools. 
Through them, the exact capacities of equipment or 
of a tool or machine can be discovered at once, and 
also the relative value in efficiency. Also motion 
study and time study determine exactly how a tool 
or a piece of equipment can best be used. 

In "On The Art of Cutting Metals" Dr. Taylor 
explains the effect of such study on determining the 
amount of time that tools should be used, the speed 
at which they should be used, the feed, and so on. 13 
This paper exemplifies more thoroughly than does 
anything else ever written the value of Time Study, 
and the scientific manner in which it is applied. 

The Scope of Time and Motion Study Is Un- 
limited. — ■ It is a great misfortune that the worker 
does not understand, as he should, that motion study 
and time study apply not only to his work, but also 
to the work of the managers. In order to get re- 
sults from the start, and paying results, it often hap- 
pens that the work of the worker is the first to be 

12 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, pp. 398-391. Harper Ed., p. 
179. Compare, U. S. Bulletin of Agriculture No. 208. The In- 
fluence of Muscular and Mental Work on Metabolism. 

13 President's Annual Address, Dec, 1906. Vol. 28, Transactions 
A. S. M. E. 



MEASUREMENT 109 

so studied, but when Scientific Management is in 
full operation, the work of the managers is studied 
exactly to the same extent, and set down exactly as 
accurately, as the work of the worker himself. The 
worker should understand this from the start, that 
he may become ready and willing to cooperate. 

Detailed Records Necessary. — Motion study and 
time study records must go into the greatest detail 
possible. If the observations are hasty, misdirected 
or incomplete they may be quite unusable and 
necessitate going through the expensive process of 
observation all over again. Dr. Taylor has stated 
that during his earlier experiences he was obliged to 
throw away a large quantity of time study data, be- 
cause they were not in sufficient detail and not re- 
corded completely enough to enable him to use them 
after a lapse of a long period from the time of their 
first use. No system of time study, and no individual 
piece of time study, can be considered a success un- 
less by its use at any time, when new, or after a 
lapse of years, an accurate prediction of the amount 
of work a man can do can be made. 

All results attained should invariably be preserved, 
whether they appear at the moment to be useful or 
valuable or not. In time study in the past it has 
been found, as in the investigations of all other 
sciences, that apparently unimportant details of to- 
day are of vital importance years after, as a neces- 
sary step to attain, or further proof of a discovery. 
This was exemplified in the case of the shoveling 
experiment of Dr. Taylor. The laws came from 
what was considered the unimportant portion of the 



no THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

data. There is little so unimportant that time and 
motion study would not be valuable. Just as it is a 
great help to the teacher to know the family history 
of the student, so it is to the one who has to use time 
and motion study data to know all possible of the 
hereditary traits, environment and habits of the 
worker who was observed. 

Specialized Study Imperative. — As an illustration 
of the field for specialized investigation which motion 
study and time study present, we may take the sub- 
ject of fatigue. Motion Study and Time Study aim 
to show, 

1. the least fatiguing method of getting least 
waste. 

2. the length of time required for a worker to do 
a certain thing. 

3. the amount of rest and the time of rest required 
to overcome fatigue. 

Dr. Taylor spent years in determining the per- 
centage of rest that should be allowed in several of 
the trades, beginning with those where the making 
of output demands weight hanging on the arms; but 
there is still a great amount of investigation that 
could be done to advantage to determine the most 
advisable percentage of rest in the working day of 
different lengths of hours. Such investigation would 
probably show that many of our trades could do the 
same amount of work in fewer hours, if the quantity 
and time of rest periods were scientifically deter- 
mined. 

Again, there is a question of the length of each 
rest period. It has been proven that in many classes 



MEASUREMENT in 

of work, and especially in those where the work is 
interrupted periodically by reason of its peculiar na- 
ture, or by reason of inefficient performance in one 
of the same sequence of dependent operations, al- 
ternate working and resting periods are best. There 
is to be considered in this connection, however, the 
recognized disadvantage of reconcentrating the at- 
tention after these rest periods. Another thing to 
be considered is that the rate of output does not de- 
cline from the beginning of the day, but rather the 
high point of the curve representing rate of produc- 
tion is at a time somewhat later than at the starting 
point. The period before the point of maximum 
efficiency is known as " warming up " among ball 
players, and is well recognized in all athletic sports. 

As for the point of minimum efficiency, or of great- 
est fatigue, this varies for " morning workers," and 
" night workers." This exemplifies yet another 
variable. 

The minuteness of the sub-fields that demand ob- 
servation, is shown by an entry in the Psychological 
Index: "1202. Benedict, F. G. "Studies in Body 
— Temperature." 1. Influence of the Inversion of 
the Daily Routine; the Temperature of Night 
Workers." 14 

Selection of Best Unit of Measurement Necessary 
and Important. — Selecting the unit of measurement 
that will of itself reduce costs is a most important ele- 
ment in obtaining maximum efficiency. 15 This is sel- 

14 American Journal of Physiology, 1904, XI, pp. 145-170. 

15 R. T. Dana, For Construction Service Co., Handbook of Steam 
Shovel Work, p. 161. H. P. Gillette, Vol. I, p. 71, A. S. E. C 



Ii2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

dom realized. 16 Where possible, several units of 
measurements should be used to check each other. 17 
One alone may be misleading, or put an incentive on 
the workers to give an undesirable result. 

The rule is, — always select that unit of output that 
will, of itself, cause a reduction in costs. 

For example : — In measuring the output of a con- 
crete gang, counting cement bags provides an incen- 
tive to use more cement than the instruction card calls 
for. Counting the batches of concrete dumped out 
of the mixer, provides an incentive to use rather 
smaller quantities of broken stone and sand than the 
proportions call for, — and, furthermore, does not put 
the incentive on the men to spill no concrete in trans- 
portation, neither does it put an incentive to use more 
lumps for Cyclopean concrete. 

Measuring the quantity actually placed in the forms 
puts no incentive to watch bulging forms closely. 

While measuring outputs by all these different units 
of measurements would be valuable to check up ac- 
curacy of proportions, accuracy of stores account, and 
output records, the most important unit of measure- 
ment for selection would be, " cubic feet of forms 
rilled," the general dimensions to be taken from the 
latest revised engineer's drawings. 

Necessity for Checking Errors. — Dr. Stratton says, 
— " No measurements, whether they be psychic or 
physical, are exact beyond a certain point, and the 
art of using them consists largely in checks and 
counter checks, and in knowing how far the measure- 

16 F. W. Taylor, Vol. 28, A. S. M. E., Paper 11 19, para. 68. 

17 Hugo Munsterberg, American Problems, p. 2>7- 



MEASUREMENT 113 

ment is reliable and where the doubtful zone be- 
gins." 18 

Capt. Metcalfe says, — "Errors of observation may 
be divided into two general classes; the instrumental 
and those due to the personal bias of the observer; 
the former referring to the standard itself, and the 
latter to the application of the standard and the record 
of the measurement." 19 

The concrete illustration given above is an example 
of careful checking up. Under Scientific Manage- 
ment so many, and such careful records are kept that 
detecting errors becomes part of the daily routine. 

SUMMARY 

Results of Measurement to the Work. — Under 
Traditional Management, even the crudest measure- 
ment of output and cost usually resulted in an in- 
crease in output. But there was no accuracy of meas- 
urement of individual efficiency, nor was there pro- 
vision made to conserve results and make them per- 
manently useful. 

Under Transitory Management and measurement 
of individual output, output increased and rewards for 
the higher output kept up the standard. 

Under Scientific Management Better Methods and 
Better Work Results. — Under Scientific Measure- 
ment, measurement of the work itself determines 

1. what kind of workers are needed. 

2. how many workers are needed. 

3. how best to use them. 

18 G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 59. 
18 Henry Metcalfe, Cost of Manufactures. 



ii 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Motion Study and Time Study measurement, — 
i. divide the work into units. 

2. measure each unit. 

3. study the variables, or elements, one at a time. 

4. furnish resulting timed elements to the syn- 
thesizer of methods of least waste. 

Accurate Measuring Devices Prevent Breakdowns 
and Accidents. — The accurate measuring devices 
which accomplish measurement under Scientific Man- 
agement prevent breakdowns and accidents to life 
and limb. 

For example. — 

1. The maintained tension on a belt bears a close 
relation to its delay periods. 

2. The speed of a buzz planer determines its lia- 
bility to shoot out pieces of wood to the injury of its 
operator, or to injure bystanders. 

Scientific Management, by determining and stand- 
ardizing methods and equipment both, provides for 
uninterrupted output. 

Effect on the Worker. — Under Traditional Man- 
agement there is not enough accurate measurement 
done to make its effect on the worker of much value. 

Under Transitory Management, as soon as indi- 
vidual outputs are measured, the worker takes more 
interest in his work, and endeavors to increase his 
output. 

Under Scientific Management measurement of the 
worker tells 

1. what the workers are capable of doing. 

2. what function it will be best to assign them to 
and to cultivate in them. 



MEASUREMENT 115 

Waste Eliminated by Accurate Measurement. — 

This accurate measurement increases the worker's 
efficiency in that it enables him to eliminate waste. 
" Cut and try " methods are eliminated. There is no 
need to test a dozen methods, a dozen men, a dozen 
systems of routing, or various kinds of equipment 
more than once, — that one time when they are scien- 
tifically tried out and measured. This accurate meas- 
urement also eliminates disputes between manager 
and worker as to what the latter's efficiency is. 

Efficiency Measured by Time and Motion Study. — 
Time and Motion Study. 

(a) measure the man by his work; that is, by the 
results of his activities; 

(b) measure him by his methods; 

(c) measure him by his capacity to learn; 

(d) measure him by his capacity to teach. 
Now measurement by result alone is very stimulat- 
ing to increasing activities, especially when it shows, 
as it does under Scientific Management, the relative 
results of various people doing the same kind of work. 
But it does not, itself, show the worker how to ob- 
tain greater results without putting on more speed or 
using up more activities. But when the worker's 
methods are measured, he begins to see, for himself, 
exactly why and where he has failed. 

Scientific Management provides for him to be 
taught, and the fact that he sees through the meas- 
urements exactly what he needs to be taught will 
make him glad to have the teacher come and show 
him how to do better. Through this teaching, its re- 
sults, and the speed with which the results come, the 



n6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

workers and the managers can see how fast the 
worker is capable of learning, and, at the same time, 
the worker, the teacher and the managers can see in 
how far the foreman is capable of instructing. 

Final Outcome Beneficial to Managers and Men. — 
Through measurement in Scientific Management, 
managers acquire — 

i. ability to select men, methods, equipment, etc.; 

2. ability to assign men to the work which they 
should do, to prescribe the method which they shall 
use, and to reward them for their output suitably; 

3. ability to predict. On this ability to predict 
rests the possibility of making calendars, chronolog- 
ical charts and schedules, and of planning determin- 
ing sequence of events, etc., which will be discussed 
at length later. 

Ability to predict allows the managers to state 
" premature truths," which the records show to be 
truths when the work has been done. 

It must not be forgotten that the managers are 
enabled not only to predict what the men, equipment, 
machinery, etc., will do, but what they can do them- 
selves. 

The Effect on the Men Is That the Worker Co- 
operates. — 1. The worker's interest is held. The men 
know that the methods they are using are the best. 
The exact measurements of efficiency of the learner, 
— and under Scientific Management a man never 
ceases to be a learner, — give him a continued in- 
terest in his work. It is impossible to hold the at- 
tention of the intelligent worker to a method or proc- 



MEASUREMENT 117 

ess that he does not believe to be the most efficient 
and least wasteful. 

Motion study and time study are the most efficient 
measuring device of the relative qualities of differ- 
ing methods. They furnish definite and exact proof 
to the worker as to the excellence of the method that 
he is told to use. When he is convinced, lack of in- 
terest due to his doubts and dissatisfaction is re- 
moved. 

2. The worker's judgment is appealed to. The 
method that he uses is the outcome of cooperation 
between him and the management. His own judg- 
ment assures him that it is the best, up to that time, 
that they, working together, have been able to dis- 
cover. 

3. The worker's reasoning powers are developed. 
Continuous judging of records of efficiency develops 
high class, well developed reasoning powers. 

4. The worker fits his task, therefore there is no 
need of adjustment, and his attitude toward his work 
is right. 

5. There is elimination of soldiering, both natural 
and systematic. 20 

All Knowledge Becomes the Knowledge of All. — ■ 
Two outcomes may be confidently expected in the 
future, as they are already becoming apparent where- 
ever Scientific Management is being introduced: 

1. The worker will become more and more will- 

20 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 46. Harper Ed., p. 30. 
F. W. Taylor, A Piece Rate System, Paper 647, A. S. M. E., para. 
22. 



n8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ing to impart his knowledge to others. When the 
worker realizes that passing on his trade secrets will 
not cause him to lose his position or, by raising up 
a crowd of competitors, lower his wages, but will, on 
the contrary, increase his wages and chances of pro- 
motion, he is ready and willing to have his excellent 
methods standardized. 

Desire to keep one's own secret, or one's own 
method a secret is a very natural one. It stimulates 
interest, it stimulates pride. It is only when, as in 
Scientific Management, the possessor of such a secret 
may receive just compensation, recognition and 
honor for his skill, and receive a position where he 
can become an appreciated teacher of others that he 
is, or should be, willing to give up this secret. Scien- 
tific Management, however, provides this opportunity 
for him to teach, provides that he receives credit for 
what he has done, and receive that publicity and 
fame which is his due, and which will give him the 
same stimulus to work which the knowledge that 
he had a secret skill gave him in the past. 

One method of securing this publicity is by nam- 
ing the device or method after its inventor. This has 
been found to be successful not only in satisfying 
the inventor, but in stimulating others to invent. 

Measurement of Individual Efficiency Will Be En- 
dorsed by All. — 2. The worker will, ultimately, real- 
ize that it is for the good of all, as well as for himself, 
that individual efficiency be measured and rewarded. 

It has been advanced as an argument against meas- 
urement that it discriminates against the " weaker 
brother," who should have a right to obtain the same 



MEASUREMENT 119 

pay as the stronger, for the reason that he has equal 
needs for this pay to maintain life and for the sup- 
port of his family. 

Putting aside at the moment the emotional side 
of this argument, which is undoubtedly a strong 
side and a side worthy of consideration, with much 
truth in it, and looking solely at the logical side, — 
it cannot do the " weaker " brother any good in the 
long run, and it does the world much harm, to have 
his work overestimated. The day is coming, when 
the world will demand that the quantity of the day's 
work shall be measured as accurately where one sells 
labor, as where one sells sugar or flour. Then, pre- 
tending that one's output is greater than it really is 
will be classed with " divers weights and divers 
measures," with their false standards. The day 
will come when the public will insist that the 
" weaker brother's " output be measured to deter- 
mine just how weak he is, and whether it is weakness, 
unfitness for that particular job, or laziness that is the 
cause of his output being low. When he reaches a 
certain degree of weakness, he will be assisted with a 
definite measured quantity of assistance. Thus the 
" weaker brother " may be readily distinguished from 
the lazy, strong brother, and the brother who is 
working at the wrong job. Measurement should 
certainly be insisted on, in order to determine 
whether these strong brothers are doing their full 
share, or whether they are causing the weaker 
brothers to over-exert themselves. 

No one who has investigated the subject properly 
can doubt that it will be better for the world in gen- 



120 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

eral to have each man's output, weak and strong, 
properly measured and estimated regardless of 
whether the weak and strong are or are not paid the 
same wages. The reason why the unions have had 
to insist that the work shall not be measured 
and that the weaker brother's weakness shall not 
be realized is, that in the industrial world the 
only brotherhood that was recognized was the 
brotherhood between the workers, there being a 
distinct antagonism between the worker and the 
manager and little or no brotherhood of the public 
at large. When Scientific Management does away, 
as it surely will, with this antagonism, by reason of 
the cooperation which is its fundamental idea, then 
the workers will show themselves glad to be meas- 
ured. 

As for the " weaker " brother idea, it is a natural 
result of such ill treatment. It has become such a 
far-reaching emotion that even Scientific Manage- 
ment, with its remedy for many ills, cannot expect in 
a moment, or in a few years, to alter the emotional 
bias of the multitudes of people who have held it for 
good and sufficient reasons for generations. 

The Government Should Conserve Measurement 
Data. — The one thing which can permanently alter 
this feeling forms the natural conclusion to this chap- 
ter. That is, measurements in general and motion 
study and time study in particular must become a 
matter of government investigation. When the gov- 
ernment has taken over the investigation and estab- 
lished a bureau where such data as Scientific Manage- 
ment discovers is collected and kept on file for all who 



MEASUREMENT 121 

will to use, then the possessor of the secret will feel 
that it can safely place the welfare of its " weaker 
brothers " in the hands of a body which is founded 
and operates on the idea of the " square deal." 

Appreciation of Time Study by Workers the First 
Step. — The first step of the workers in this direction 
must be the appreciation of time study, for on time 
study hangs the entire subject of Scientific Manage- 
ment. It is this great discovery by Dr. Taylor that 
makes the elimination of waste possible. It has 
come to stay. Many labor leaders are opposed to it, 
but the wise thing for them to do is to study, foster 
and cultivate it. They cannot stop its progress. 
There is no thing that can stop it. The modern 
managers will obtain it, and the only way to prevent 
it from being used by unscrupulous managers is for 
the workman also to learn the facts of time study. It 
is of the utmost importance to the workers of the 
country, for their own protection, that they be as 
familiar with time study data as the managers are. 
Time study is the foundation and frame work of rate 
setting and fixing, and certainly the subject of rate 
fixing is the most important subject there is to the 
workmen, whether they are working on day work, 
piece work, premium, differential rate piece, task 
with bonus, or three-rate system. 

Dr. Taylor has proved by time study that many of 
the customary working days are too long, that the 
same amount of output can be achieved in fewer 
hours per day. Time study affords the means for 
the only scientific proof that many trades fatigue 
the workers beyond their endurance and strength. 



122 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Time study is the one means by which the workers 
can prove the real facts of their unfortunate condi- 
tion under the Traditional plan of management. 

The workers of the country should be the very 
ones that should insist upon the government tak- 
ing the matter in hand for scientific investigation. 
Knowledge is power, — a rule with no exception, and 
the knowledge of scientific time study would pre- 
pare the workers of any trade, and would provide 
their intelligent leaders with data for accurate de- 
cisions for legislation and other steps for their best 
interests. The national bodies should hire experts 
to represent them and to cooperate with the govern- 
ment bureau in applying science to their life work. 

The day is fast approaching when makers of ma- 
chinery will have the best method of operating their 
machines micro-motion studied and cyclegraphed and 
description of methods of operation in accordance 
with such records will be everywhere considered as 
a part of the " makers' directions for using." 

Furthermore associations of manufacturers will 
establish laboratories for determining methods of least 
waste by means of motion study, time study and 
micro-motion study, and the findings of such labora- 
tories will be put in standardized shape for use by all 
its members. The trend today shows that soon there 
will be hundreds of books of time study tables. The 
government must sooner or later save the waste re- 
sulting from this useless duplication of efforts. 



CHAPTER V 
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 

Definition of Analysis. — "Analysis," says the Cen- 
tury Dictionary is " the resolution or separation of 
anything which is compound, as a conception,- a sen- 
tence, a material substance or an event, into its con- 
stituent elements or into its causes; " that is to say, 
analysis is the division of the thing under considera- 
tion into its definite cause, and into its definite parts 
or elements, and the explanation of the principle 
upon which such division is made. 1 

Definition of Synthesis. — " Synthesis " is, " a put- 
ting of two or more things together; composition; 
specifically, the combination of separate elements or 
objects of thought into a whole, as of simple into 
compound or complex conceptions, and individual 
propositions into a system." 

Use of Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology. — 
Analysis is defined by Sully as follows : " Analysis " 
is " taking apart more complex processes in order to 
single out for special inspection their several con- 
stituent processes." 

He divides elements of thought activity into two 

"(a) analysis: abstraction 
(b) synthesis: comparison." 

1 Compare Mechanical Analysis. Taylor and Thompson, Concrete, 
Plain and Reinforced, p. 193. 

123 



124 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Speaking of the latter, he says, " The clear explicit 
detachment in thought of the common elements 
which comparison secures allows of a new recon- 
structive synthesis of things as made up of par- 
ticular groupings of a number of general qualities." 

Place of Analysis and Synthesis in Management. — 
Any study of management which aims to prove that 
management may be, and under Scientific Manage- 
ment is, a science, must investigate its use of analysis 
and of synthesis. 2 Upon the degree and perfection 
of the analysis depends the permanent value and use- 
fulness of the knowledge gained. Upon the syn- 
thesis, and what it includes and excludes, depends the 
efficiency of the results deduced. 

Little Analysis or Synthesis Under Traditional 
Management. — Under Traditional Management 
analysis and synthesis are so seldom present as to 
be negligible. Success or failure are seldom if 
ever so studied and measured that the causes are 
well understood. Therefore, no standards for fu- 
ture work that are of any value can be established. 
It need only be added that one reason why Tra- 
ditional Management makes so little progress is be- 
cause it makes no analyses that are of perma- 
nent value. What data it has are available for im- 
mediate use only. Practically every man who 
does the work must " start at the beginning," for 
himself. If this is often true of entire methods, it 
is even more true of elements of methods. As ele- 
ments are not studied and recorded separately, they 
are not recognized when they appear again, and the 
2 H. LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A. S. M. E., p. 303. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 125 

resultant waste is appalling. This waste is inevitable 
with the lack of cooperation under Traditional Man- 
agement and the fact that each worker plans the 
greater part of his work for himself. 

Analysis and Synthesis Appear Late in Transitory 
Management. — Division of output appears early in 
Transitory Management, but it is usually not until 
a late stage that motion study and time study are 
conducted so successfully that scientifically deter- 
mined and timed elements can be constructed into 
standards. As everything that is attempted in the 
line of analysis and synthesis under Transitory Man- 
agement is done scientifically under Scientific Man- 
agement, we may avoid repetition by considering 
Scientific Management at once. 

Relation of Analysis and Synthesis in Scientific 
Management to Measurement and Standardization. — 
Analysis considers the subject that is to be measured, 
— be it individual action or output of any kind, — 
and divides it into such a number of parts, and parts 
of such a nature, as will best suit the purpose for 
which the measurement is taken. When these sub- 
divisions have been measured, synthesis combines 
them into a whole. 3 Under Scientific Management, 
through the measurements used, synthesis is a com- 
bination of those elements which are necessary only, 
and which have been proven to be most efficient. 
The result of the synthesis is standardized, and used 
until a more accurate standard displaces it. 

Under Scientific Management analysis and syn- 
thesis are methods of determining standards from 

' 3 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 35. 



126 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

available knowledge. Measurement furnishes the 
means. 

Analyst's Work Is Division. — It is the duty of the 
analyst to divide the work that he is set to study into 
the minutest divisions possible. What is possible is 
determined by the time and money that can be set 
aside for the investigation. 

The Nature of the Work Must Determine the 
Amount of Analysis Practicable. — In determining 
the amount of time and money required, it is neces- 
sary to consider — 

i. the cost of the work if done with no special 
study. 

2. how many times the work is likely to be re- 
peated. 

3. how many elements that it contains are likely 
to be similar to elements in work that has already 
been studied. 

4. how many new elements that it contains are 
likely to be available in subsequent work. 

5. the probable cost of the work after it has been 
studied — 

(a) the cost of doing it. 

(b) the cost of the investigation. 

6. The loss, if any, from delaying the work until 
after it has been studied. 

7. the availability of trained observers and meas- 
urers, analysts and synthesists. 

8. the available money for carrying on the in- 
vestigations. 

These questions at least must be answered before 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ia 7 

it is possible to decide whether study shall be made 
or not, and to what degree it can be carried. 

Cost the Determining Factor. — It is obvious that 
in all observation in the industrial world cost must 
be the principal determining feature. Once the cost 
can be estimated, and the amount of money that can 
be allowed for the investigation determined, it is pos- 
sible at least to approximate satisfactory answers to 
the other questions. How closely the answers ap- 
proximate depends largely on the skill and experience 
of the analyst. 

The greater number of times the work is to be re- 
peated, the less the ultimate cost. The more ele- 
ments contained similar to elements already deter- 
mined, the less the additional cost, and the less the 
time necessary. The more elements contained that 
can be used again, even in different work, the less the 
ultimate cost. The better trained the analyst, the 
less the immediate or additional cost and time. 

Much depends on the amount of previous data at 
hand when the investigation is being made, and on 
the skill and speed of the analyst in using these data. 

Process of Division Unending. — In practice, the 
process of division continues as long as it can show 
itself to be a method for cost reducing. Work may 
be divided into processes: each process into subdi- 
visions; each subdivision into cycles; each cycle into 
elements; each element into time units; each time 
unit into motions, — and so on, indefinitely, toward 
the " indivisible minimum." 4 

4 F. B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System. 



128 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Measuring May Take Place at Any Stage. — At 

any of these stages of division the results may be 
taken as final for the purpose of the study, — and the 
operations, or final divisions of the work at that stage, 
may be measured. 

To obtain results with the least expenditure of 
time, the operations must be subjected to motion 
study before they are timed as well as after. This 
motion study can be accurate and of permanent value 
only in so far as the divisions are final. The result- 
ing improved operations are then ready to be timed. 

Ultimate Analysis the Field of Psychology. — 
When the analyst has proceeded as far as he can in 
dividing the work into prime factors the problem 
continues in the field of psychology. Here the op- 
portunities for securing further data become almost 
limitless. 

Ultimate Analysis Justifiable. — It is the justifica- 
tion for analysis to approach the ultimate as nearly 
as possible, that the smaller and more difficult of 
measurement the division is, the more often it will 
appear in various combinations of elements. The 
permanence and exactness of the result vary with the 
effort for obtaining it. 

Qualifications of an Analyst. — To be most suc- 
cessful, an analyst should have ingenuity, patience, 
and that love of dividing a process into its component 
parts and studying each separate part that character- 
izes the analytic mind. The analyst must be ca- 
pable of doing accurate work, and orderly work. 

To get the most pleasure and profit from his work 
he should realize that his great, underlying purpose 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 129 

is to relieve the worker of unnecessary fatigue, to 
shorten his work period per day, and to increase the 
number of his days and years of higher earning 
power. With this realization will come an added in- 
terest in his subject. 

Worker Should Understand the Process of 
Analysis. — It is not enough that the worker should 
understand the methods of measurement. He can 
get most from the resultant standards and will most 
efficiently cooperate if he understands the division 
into elements to be studied. 

Schools Should Provide Training. — Much of the 
training in analysis in the schools comes at such a 
late period of the course that the average industrial 
worker must miss a large part of it. This is a de- 
fect in school training that should be remedied. 
Even very young children soon are capable of, and 
greatly enjoy, dividing a process into elements. If 
the worker be taught, in his preparations, and in the 
work itself, to divide what he does into its elements, 
he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but will 
be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and 
to cooperate better in the processes of measurement. 

The Synthesist's Work Is Selection and Addition. — 
The synthesist studies the individual results of the 
analyst's work, and their inter-relation, and deter- 
mines which of these should be combined, and in 
what manner, for the most economic result. His 
duty is to construct that combination of the elements 
which will be most efficient. 

Importance of Selection Must Be Emphasized. — 
If synthesis in Scientific Management were nothing 



i 3 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

more than combining all the elements that result 
from analysis into a whole, it would be valuable. 
Any process studied analytically will be performed 
more intelligently, even if there is no change in the 
method. 

But the most important part of the synthesist's 
work is the actual elimination of elements which are 
useless, and the combination of the remaining ele- 
ments in such a way, or sequence, or schedule, that 
a far better method than the one analyzed will re- 
sult. 

We may take an example from Bricklaying. 5 In 
" Stringing Mortar Method, on the Filling Tiers be- 
fore the Days of the Pack-on-the- Wall-Method " — 
the division, which was into operations only, showed 
eighteen operations and eighteen motions for every 
brick that was laid. Study and synthesis of these 
elements resulted in a method that required only ify 
motions to lay a brick. Over half the original mo- 
tions were found to be useless, hence entirely omitted. 
In several other cases it was found possible to make 
one motion do work for two or four brick, with the 
same, or less, fatigue to the worker. 

Result Is the Basis for the Task. — The result of 
synthesis is the basis for the task, — it becomes the 
standard that shows what has actually been done, and 
what can be expected to be repeated. It is important 
to note the relation between the task and synthesis. 
When it becomes generally understood that the 
" Task," under Scientific Management is neither an 
ideal which exists simply in the imagination, nor an 

5 F. B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 151. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 131 

impossibly high estimate of what can be expected, — 
but is actually the sum of observed and timed opera- 
tions, plus a definite and sufficient percentage of 
allowance for overcoming the fatigue, — then much 
objection to it will cease. 

General Lack of Knowledge the Chief Cause of 
Objection to the Task. — As is the case with most 
objections to Scientific Management, or its elements, 
ignorance is the chief obstacle to the introduction and 
success of the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to 
be more or less prevalent everywhere among man- 
agers as well as workers. 

Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even 
when the workers are ignorant of many of its funda- 
mental principles, but it will never make the strides 
that it should until every man working under it, as 
well as all outside, understand why it is doing as it 
does, as well as what is done. 

This educational campaign could find no better 
starting point than the word " task," and the " task 
idea." 

The Name Task Is Unfortunate. 6 — The Century 
Dictionary defines " Task " as follows : 

1. " a tax, an assessment, an impost 

2. " labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or 
amount of labor; work to be done; one's stint; that 
which duty or necessity imposes; duty or duties col- 
lectively 

3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study im- 
posed by a teacher 

6 James M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 11 19, A. S. M. E., para. 
284. 



i 3 2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

4. " work undertaken, — an undertaking 

5. "burdensome employment; toil." 

Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in 
any way what is meant by the task in Scientific Man- 
agement. 

The ideas included in the other four definitions are 
most unpleasant. The thought of labor; the thought 
that the labor is imposed; the thought that the imposi- 
tion is definite; that duty makes it necessary that it 
be done; that it is burdensome; that it is toilsome: 
these are most unfortunate ideas and have been as- 
sociated with the word so long in the human mind 
that it will be a matter of years before a new set of 
associations can be formed which will be pleasant, and 
which will render the word " task " attractive and 
agreeable to the worker and to the public in general. 

No Other Adequate Word Has Been Suggested. — 
However, there seems to be no better word forthcom- 
ing; therefore, one can but follow the example of the 
masters in management, who have accepted this word, 
and have done their best to make it attractive by the 
way they themselves have used it. 

To the writer, the word " stint " is far more attrac- 
tive and more truly descriptive than is " task." Per- 
haps because of the old-fashioned idea that a reward, 
usually immediate, followed the completion of the 
" stint." 

Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless 
vary, but it is self-evident that the word " task " has 
already become so firmly established in Scientific 
Management that any attempt to change it would 
result in a confusion. It is far better to concentrate 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 133 

on developing a new set of associations for it in as 
many minds as possible. 

Decided Advantage to the Use of the Word Task. 
— Perhaps in one way it is fortunate that the use 
of the word " task " does coincide more or less with 
the use of that word under Traditional Management. 
Under Traditional Management the task is the work 
to be done. It may be just as well that the same word 
should be used under Scientific Management, in order 
that both the worker and investigator may realize, 
that, after all the work that is to be done is, in its es- 
sentials, exactly the same. With this realization from 
the beginning, the mind of the worker or investigator 
may be the more predisposed to note the eliminations 
of waste and the cutting down of time, effort and 
fatigue under the scientifically derived methods. 

Definition of Task as Used in Scientific Manage- 
ment. — The task, under Scientific Management, 
differs from the task under Traditional Management 
in that — 

1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which 
the work shall be done are standardized. 

2. The method in which the work shall be done is 
prescribed. 

3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically 
determined. 

4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue. 

5. The quality of the output is prescribed. 
When to this is added the fact that the method is 

taught, and that the reward is ample, fixed, prompt 
and assured, the attractive features of the task under 
Scientific Management have been made plain. 



i 3 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Task Idea Applies to Work of Everyone. — Under 
Scientific Management there is a task for every mem- 
ber of the organization, from the head of the manage- 
ment to the worker at the most rudimentary work. 
This is too often not known, or not appreciated by the 
worker, who feels that what is deemed best for him 
should be good for everyone. The mental attitude 
will never be right till all understand that the task idea 
will increase efficiency when applied to any possible 
kind of work. With the application of the task idea 
to all, will come added cooperation. 

Task Idea Applies to the Work of the Organiza- 
tion. — The work which is to be done by the organiza- 
tion should be considered the task of the organization, 
and this organization task is studied before individual 
tasks are set. The methods used in determining this 
organization task are analysis and synthesis, just as 
in the case of the individual task. 

Individual Tasks Are Elements of Organization 
Task. — The individual tasks are considered as ele- 
ments of the organization task. The problem is, to 
determine the best arrangement of these individual 
tasks, the best schedule, and routing. The individual 
task may be thought of as something moving, that 
must be gotten out of the way. 

Management has been called largely a matter of 
transportation. It may be " transportation " or mov- 
ing of materials, revolution of parts of fixed machin- 
ery, or merely transportation of parts of one's body in 
manual movements ; 7 in any case, the laws governing 
transportation apply to all. This view of manage- 
7 F. B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 135 

ment is most stimulating to the mind. A moving 
object attracts attention and holds interest. Work 
that is interesting can be accomplished with greater 
speed and less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the 
methods of Scientific Management as the most ac- 
curate and efficient in transporting the finished output 
and its " chips " 8 will be a great aid towards attaining 
the best results possible by means of a new method of 
visualizing the problem. 

Qualifications of the Synthesist. — The synthesist 
must have a constructive mind, for he determines the 
sequence of events as well as the method of attack. 
He must have the ability to see the completed whole 
which he is trying to make, and to regard the elements 
with which he works not only as units, but in relation 
to each other. He must feel that any combination is 
influenced not only by the elements that go into it, 
but by the inter-relation between these elements. 
This differs for different combinations as in a kaleido- 
scope. 

The Synthesist a Conserver. — The Synthesist must 
never be thought of as a destructive critic. He is, in 
reality, a conserver of all that is valuable in old 
methods. Through his work and that of the analyst, 
the valuable elements of traditional methods are in- 
corporated into standard methods. These standard 
methods will, doubtless, be improved as time goes on, 
but the valuable elements will be permanently con- 
served. 

Synthesist an Inventor. — The valuable inventions 
referred to as the result of measurement are the work 

8 James M. Dodge. 



136 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of the synthetic mind. It discovers new, better 
methods of doing work, and this results in the inven- 
tion of better means, such as tools or equipment. 

For example, — in the field of Bricklaying, the Non- 
stooping Scaffold, the Packet and the Fountain 
Trowel were not invented until the analysis of brick- 
laying was made, and the synthesis of the chosen ele- 
ments into standard methods made plain the need 
and specifications for new equipment. 

Relation of Invention to Scientific Management 
Important. — There has been much discussion as to 
the relation of Invention to Scientific Management. 
It has been claimed by many otherwise able authori- 
ties that many results claimed as due to Scientific 
Management are really the results of new machinery, 
tools or equipment that have been invented. 9 Scien- 
tific Management certainly can lay no claim to credit 
for efficiency which comes through inventions neither 
suggested nor determined by it. But the inventions 
from the results of which Scientific Management is 
said to have borrowed credit are usually, like the 
bricklaying inventions cited, not only direct results 
of Scientific Management, but probably would not 
have sprung from any other source for years to come. 

Synthesist a Discoverer of Laws. — It is the syn- 
thetic type of mind that discovers the laws. For ex- 
ample — it was Dr. Taylor, with the aid of a few of 
his specially trained co-workers, who discovered the 
following governing laws : 

i. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work 
done and the fatigue caused in different kinds of work. 

9 London, Engineering, Sept. 15, 191 1. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 137 

2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue. 

3. law of classification of work according to per- 
centage of fatigue caused. 

4. laws for making high-speed steel. 

5. laws relating to cutting metals. 

6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and 
cut on metals for the greatest output. 

7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output 
that a man can achieve and thrive. 

8. laws for determining the selection of the men 
best suited for the work. 

Synthesist an Adviser on Introduction of New 
Methods. — Having constructed the standard tasks or 
standard methods which are new, the synthesist must 
remember to introduce his new task or method with 
as few new variables as possible. He should so 
present it that all the old knowledge will come out to 
meet the new, that all the brain paths that have 
already been made will be utilized, and that the new 
path will lead out from paths which are well known 
and well traveled. 

Introduce with as Few New Variables as Pos- 
sible. — The greatest speed in learning a new method 
will be attained by introducing it with as few new 
variables as possible. 

For example, — learning to dictate to a dictaphone. 
The writer found it very difficult, at first, to dictate 
into the dictaphone, — ■ the whirling of the cylinder 
distracted the eye, the buzzing of the motor dis- 
tracted the ear, the rubber tube leading to the mouth- 
piece was constantly reminding the touch that some- 
thing new was being attempted. At the suggestion 



i 3 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of one well versed in Scientific Management, the 
mouth-piece of the dictaphone was propped on the 
desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of the 
latter. The writer then found that as soon as one 
became interested in the dictating and one's attention 
was concentrated on the thought, one was able ab- 
solutely to forget the new variable, because it is one 
which is kept constant, and to dictate fluently. The 
emphasis laid on the likeness in thus dictating to the 
old accustomed act of talking through the telephone, 
seemed to put all other differences into the back- 
ground, and to allow of forming the new and de- 
sired habit very quickly. 

SUMMARY 

Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Work. — As 

the outcome of Analysis and Synthesis is Standardiza- 
tion, so the effect of them upon work is standard 
work. Quantity of output can be predicted, quality 
of output is assured. 

Effect on the Worker. — The effect of Analysis and 
Synthesis upon the worker is to make him feel that 
the methods which he is using are right, and that, be- 
cause of this, his work must be of value. The more 
the worker is induced to cooperate in the determin- 
ing and the combination of elements, the more will 
he share with the investigators the satisfaction in get- 
ting permanent results. The outcome of this co- 
operation will, again, result in more perfect future 
results, and so on, progressively. 



CHAPTER VI 
STANDARDIZATION 

Definition of Standardization. — Standardization' 
is " the act of standardizing, or the state of being 
standardized." " A standard," according to the Cen- 
tury Dictionary, " is that which is set up as a unit of 
reference; a form, type, example, incidence, or com- 
bination of conditions accepted as correct and perfect 
and hence as a basis of comparison. A criterion 
established by custom, public opinion or general con- 
sent; a model." 1 

We must note particularly that the standard is a 
" unit of reference," that it is a " basis of comparison," 
and that it is " a model." These three phrases de- 
scribe the standard in management, and are par- 
ticularly emphasized by the use of the standard in 
Scientific Management. 

Standards Derived from Actual Practice. — Man- 
agement derives its standards not from theories as 
to best methods, but from scientific study of actual 
practice. 2 As already shown, the method of deriving 
a standard is — 

1 Compare R. T. Dana and W. L. Sanders, Rock Drilling, chap. 
XVI. 

2 The idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of 
Scientific Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, 
of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 
6, 

139 



i 4 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

1. to analyze the best practice known into the small- 
est possible elements, 

2. to measure these elements, 

3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as stand- 
ard elements, 

4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements 
into the standard. 

The Standard Is Progressive. — A standard remains 
fixed only until a more perfect standard displaces it. 
The data from which the standard was derived may 
be reviewed because of some error, because a fur- 
ther subdivision of the elements studied may prove 
possible, or because improvements in some factor of 
the work, i. e., the worker, material, tools, equip- 
ment, etc., may make a new standard desirable. 

The fact that a standard is recognized as not be- 
ing an ultimate standard in no wise detracts from its 
/ working value. As Captain Metcalfe has said: 
" Whatever be the standard of measurement, it 
\ suffices for comparison if it be generally accepted, if 
n it be impartially applied, and if the results be fully 
recorded." 3 

Change in the Standard Demands Change in the 
Task and in the Incentive. — Necessarily, with the 
change in the standard comes a change in the task 
and in the reward. All parts of Scientific Manage- 
ment are so closely related that it is impossible to 
make a successful progressive step in one branch 
without simultaneously making all the related pro- 
gressions in other branches that go with it. 

For example, — if the material upon which a stand- 

3 Cost of Manufactures. 



STANDARDIZATION 141 

ard was based caused more care or effort, a smaller 
task must be set, and wages must be proportionately 
lowered. Proportionately, note, for determining 
that change would necessitate a review and a re- 
distribution of the cost involved. 

In the same way, if an improvement in equipment 
necessitated a new method, as does the packet in lay- 
ing brick, a new task would become imperative, and 
a reconsideration of the wage. The wage might 
remain the same, it might go down, it might go up. 
In actual practice, in the case of bricklayers, it has 
gone up. But the point is, it must be restudied. 
This provides effectually against cutting the rate or 
increasing the task in any unjust manner. 

Similarity Between the Standard and the " Judg- 
ment " of Psychology. — There are many points of 
similarity between the " Standard," of management, 
and the " judgment " of psychology. Sully says, in 
speaking of the judgment, 4 — " This process of judg- 
ing illustrates the two fundamental elements in 
thought activity, viz., analysis and synthesis." " To 
judge is clearly to discern and to mark off as a spe- 
cial object of thought some connecting relation." 
" To begin with, before we can judge we must have 
the requisite materials for forming a judgment." 
" In the second place, to judge is to carry out a proc- 
ess of reflection on given material." " In addition to 
clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have 
other perfections. So far as our statements accord 
with known facts, they should be adhered to, — at 
least, till new evidence proves them untrue." 

4 Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, pp. 290-292. 



142 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Psychology a Final Appeal as to Permanent Value 
of Any Standard. — The standard under manage- 
ment, even under Scientific Management, can lay no 
claim to being perfect. It can never nearly approach 
perfection until the elements are so small that it is 
practicable to test them psychologically and physio- 
logically. The time when this can be done in 
many lines, when the benefit that will directly ac- 
crue will justify the necessary expenditure, may seem 
far distant, but every analysis of operations, no mat- 
ter how rudimentary, is hastening the day when the 
underlying, permanently valuable elements can be 
determined and their variations studied. 

Cooperation Will Hasten the Day of Psychological 
and Physiological Study of Standards. — Cooperation 
in collecting and comparing the results of motion 
study and time study everywhere will do much to 
assist toward more ultimate determination of ele- 
ments. At the present time the problems that man- 
agement submits to psychology are too indefinite 
and cover too large a field to be attacked success- 
fully. Cooperation between management stand- 
ardizes would mean — 

i. that all management data would be available to 
psychologists and physiologists. 

2. that such data, being available also to all stand- 
ardizes, would prevent reduplication, of results. 

3. that savings would result. 

4. that, from a study and comparison of the col- 
lected data a trained synthetic mind could build up 
better standards than could be built from any set of 
individual data. 



STANDARDIZATION 143 

5. Savings would result from this. 

6. Inventions would also result. 

7. Savings would again result from these. 

8. All of these various savings could be invested 
in more intensive study of elements. 

9. These more valuable results would again be 
available to psychologists and physiologists. 

This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, 
all would benefit with little added cost to any. For 
the results of the psychological and physiological 
study would be available to all, and investigators in 
those lines have shown themselves ready and glad 
to undertake investigations. 

Purpose of Standardization. — The purpose of 
standardizing is the same under all types of man- 
agement; that is, it is the elimination of waste. 

Standardization Frequently Attempted Under Tra- 
ditional Management. — In much progressive Tradi- 
tional Management there is an appreciation of the 
necessity of standardizing tools and equipment, that 
is to say, of having these on the " duplicate part 
system," that assembling may be done quickly, and 
repairs made without delay. 

The manager notices some particularly successful 
man, or method, or arrangement of tools, equipment, 
or the surroundings, and decides to have a record 
made thereof that the success may be repeated. 
These records, if made in sufficient detail, are very 
valuable. The difficulty is that so often the man 
making the records does not observe all the variables. 
Hence the very elements which caused the success 
may be overlooked entirely. 



144 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Value of Standardization Not Appreciated Under 
Traditional Management. — It is surprising, under 
Traditional Management, to note, in many cases, the 
years that elapse before any need for standardiza- 
tion is felt. It is also surprising that, even when 
some standardization has been done, its importance 
is seldom realized. The new standard becomes a 
matter of course, and the management fails to be 
impressed enough with its benefits to apply the 
principle of standardization to other fields. 

Under Transitory Management Standardization 
Becomes Constantly More Important. — Not until 
Motion Study and Time Study have been introduced 
can the full benefits of standardization be attained. 
But as soon as the Transitory Stage of Management 
appears, the importance of standardization is realized. 
This is brought about largely through the records 
of individual outputs, which constantly call attention 
to the necessity of making available to all the meth- 
ods, tools and equipment of the most successful 
workers. 

Records of Successes Become More Profitable. — 
The rules which embody successful practice become 
more profitable as the necessity for more detailed 
recording of all the variables becomes possible. An 
appreciation of what scientific motion study and time 
study will ultimately do affects the minds of the man- 
agement until the workers are given directions as 
to methods to be used, and the incentive of extra 
pay for following directions. 

"Systems" Show an Appreciation of Psychol- 
ogy. — The " Systems," standing orders or collec- 



STANDARDIZATION 145 

tions of written directions, that are evolved at this 
stage have a permanent value. This is especially true 
when the directions, often called " rules," contain the 
reason for the rule. There is a decided awakening to 
the importance of Psychology in this appeal to the 
reason of the worker. He is not affronted by being 
forced to follow directions for which he is given no 
reason and which he has no reason to believe have 
been scientifically derived. These rules, in a certain 
typical case, are stated in simple language, some in 
the form of commands, some in the form of sugges- 
tions, and are obviously so prepared as to be under- 
stood and obeyed by the workers with the least pos- 
sible amount of effort, opposition and time. As 
ample opportunity is given for suggestions, the 
worker's attention and interest are held, and any 
craving he may have for self-expression is gratified. 
Systems Permanently Useful. — -These systems, 
collections of rules, directions or standing orders are 
useful even when Ultimate Management is com- 
pletely installed — 

1. for use as records of successful methods which 
may be scientifically studied for elements. 

2. for use by the instruction card clerk in explain- 
ing to the men why the rules on the instruction card 
are given. 

Relation of Systems to Standards Should Be 
Emphasized. — The worker is too often not made to 
understand the relation of Systems to Standards. 
The average worker does not object to Systems, be- 
cause he realizes that the System is a collection of 
his best, least wasteful methods of doing work. 



146 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

When he can be convinced that standards are only- 
efficient elements of his own methods scientifically 
studied and combined, any opposition to them will 
disappear. 

The Personal Note of the "System" Should Be 
Preserved. — Perhaps one thing that makes the typ- 
ical " Systems " so attractive is the personal note 
that they contain. Illustrated with pictures of suc- 
cessful work that the workers themselves have done, 
often containing pictures of the men themselves that 
illustrate successful methods, with mention of the 
names of men who have offered valuable suggestions 
or inventions, they make the worker feel his part in 
successful results. They conserve the old spirit of 
cooperation between the master and his apprentices. 

The conditions of modern industry make it ex- 
tremely difficult to conserve this feeling. Scientific 
Management is successful not only because it makes 
possible a more effective cooperation than has ever 
existed since the old " master-and-apprentice " re- 
lation died out, but also because it conserves in the 
Systems the interim channel for personal communi- 
cation between the various members of the organiza- 
tion. 

Systems a Valuable Assistance in Transition to 
Scientific Management. — One great problem which 
those introducing Scientific Management have to 
face is exactly how to make the worker understand 
the relation of the new type of management to the 
old. The usefulness of the written system in use in 
most places where it is planned to introduce Scien- 
tific Management as a means of making the worker 



STANDARDIZATION 147 

understand the transition has, perhaps, not been ap- 
preciated. 

The development of the standard from the system 
is easy to explain. This being done, all parts of 
Scientific Management are so closely related that 
their interrelation can be readily made apparent. 

It is the worker's right as well as privilege to un- 
derstand the management under which he works, and 
he only truly cooperates, with his will and judgment 
as well as with his hands, when he feels that his mind 
is a part of the directing mind. 

Standardization Under Scientific Management 
Eliminates Waste Scientifically. — Under Scientific 
Management the elimination of waste by the use of 
standards becomes a science. Standards are no 
longer based on opinions, as under Traditional Man- 
agement, but are based upon scientific investigation 
of the elements of experience. 

As James says, in the " Psychology, Briefer 
Course," page 156, paragraph 4, — " It is obvious and 
palpable that our state of mind is never precisely the 
same. Every thought we have of a given fact is, 
strictly speaking, unique and only bears a resem- 
blance of kind with our other thoughts of the same 
facts. When the identical fact recurs we must think 
of it in a fresh manner, see it under a somewhat dif- 
ferent angle, apprehend it in different relations from 
those in which it last appeared." 
, The Standard the Result of Measurement. — It is 
obvious, therefore, that a scientifically derived stand- 
ard can never be the outcome of an opinion. 
Whenever the opinion returns, the different thoughts 



i 4 S THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

with which it would be accompanied would so color 
it as to change it, and the standard with it. It is 
obvious, therefore, that a standard must be the re- 
sult of definite mathematical and other measured 
proof, and not of an opinion, and that the standard 
must be in such physical shape that the subject-mat- 
ter will always be clearly denned, otherwise the ul- 
timate losses resulting from dependent sequences of 
the standard schedule and time-tables would be enor- 
mous. 

Successful Standardization Demands Complete 
Conformity to Standards. — The laws for establish- 
ment of standards; the laws of achieving them; the 
laws for preventing deviations from those paths that 
will permit of their achievement; the dependent se- 
quences absolutely necessary to perform the com- 
plete whole; these have been worked out and given 
to the world by Dr. Taylor, who recognized, as 
James has said, page 157, that, " a permanently ex- 
isting ' Idea ' which makes its appearance before the 
footlights of consciousness at periodic intervals, is as 
mythological an entity as the Jack of Spades." The 
entire organization from the highest to the lowest 
must conform to these standards. It is out of the 
question to permit the deviations resulting from in- 
dividual initiative. Individual initiative is quite as 
objectionable in obtaining the best results, — that is, 
high wages and low production cost, — as service 
would be on a railroad if each locomotive engineer 
were his own train despatcher, determining at what 
time and to what place he would go. 

Initiative Provided For. — There is a distinct place 



STANDARDIZATION 149 

for initiative in Scientific Management, but that place 
is not outside of the planning department, until the 
planning department's method has been proved to 
be fully understood by achieving it. The standards 
must be made by the men to whom this work is as- 
signed, and they must be followed absolutely by the 
worker. He is willing to follow them, under Scien- 
tific Management, because he realizes that a place 
for his suggestions is supplied, and that, if his sug- 
gestions are accepted, they will be incorporated into 
the new standards which must then be followed by 
all thereafter. 

Standardization Applies to the Work of All. — It 
is important to note that standardizing is applied to 
the work of all. This, if understood by all, will do 
away with all question of discrimination or the lack 
of a " square deal." It will make the worker feel 
ready to follow his standard exactly, just as he knows 
the manager is following his. So, also, the worker 
should be made to realize that the very fact that 
there is a standardization means, under Scientific 
Management, that that applies to every man, and 
that there is no discrimination against him in any 
possible way. 

Standardization Conserves and Develops Indi- 
viduality. — Standardization conserves individual ca- 
pacity by doing away with the wasteful process of 
trial and error of the individual workman. It de- 
velops individuality by allowing the worker to con- 
centrate his initiative upon work that has not be- 
fore been done, and by providing incentive and re- 
ward for inventions. 



150 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Waste Eliminated Is Eliminated Permanently. — 

Scientific Management not only eliminates waste, 
but provides that waste shall be eliminated for all 
time in the future. 

The standard once written down, there can be no 
slipping back into the old methods based upon 
opinions of the facts. 

Standardization Under Scientific Management Re- 
sembles Standardization of Spelling. — The need for 
standardization has already been emphasized, but 
might further be illustrated by the discussions, pro 
and con, of the question of simplified spelling. Be- 
fore the days of dictionaries, our spelling was not 
standardized — it was the privilege of any good 

P Titer to spell much as he desired; but the creation 
f written standards of spelling, that is to say the 
making of dictionaries, fixed the forms of spelling at 
that time, that is, created standards. The Simplified 
Spelling Board is now endeavoring to make some 
new standards, their action being based upon suf- 
ficient reasons for making a change, and also for not 
changing the spelling of any word until it is deter- 
mined that the suggested spelling is more advisable 
than the old spelling. 

Just so, under Scientific Management, the best 
known standards are used continuously until better 
have been discovered. The planning department, 
consisting of the best men available, whose special 
duty it is to create new standards, acts as does the 
Simplified Spelling Board, as a court of appeals for 
new standards, which must pass this court before 
they can hope to succeed the old, and which must, 



STANDARDIZATION 151 

if they are to be accepted, possess many elements of 
the old and be changed only in such a way that 
the users can, without difficulty, shift to the new 
use. 

Under Scientific Management Nomenclature Is 
Standardized. — Under Standardization in Scientific 
Management the standardization of the nomencla- 
ture, of the names and of the terms used must be 
noted. The effect of this upon the mind is excellent, 
because the use of a word very soon becomes a habit 
— its associations become fixed. If different names 
are used for the same thing, — that is to say, if 
different names are used indiscriminately, the thing 
itself becomes hazy, in just such a degree as it pos- 
sesses many names. The use of the fixed term, the 
fixed word, leads to definiteness always. Just so, 
also, the Mnemonic Symbol system in use by Scien- 
tific Management, leads to swift identification of the 
subdivision of the classification to which it is ap- 
plied, and to elimination of waste in finding and re- 
membering where to find any particular thing or 
piece of information desired. By it may be identi- 
fied " the various articles of manufacture and papers 
relating to it as well as the operations to be per- 
formed on each piece and the various charges of the 
establishment." 

Mnemonic Symbols Save Time and Effort. — These 
Mnemonic Symbols save actual motions and time in 
speaking and writing, and save time in that they are 
so designed as to be readily remembered. They 
also save time and effort in that the mind accustomed 
to them works with them as collective groups of 



152 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ideas, without stopping to elaborate them into their 
more detailed form. 

Standard Phraseology Eliminates Waste. — As 
typical of the savings effected by standardization, we 
may cite a lineman talking to the Central Telephone 
Office: — 

"John Doe — 1234 L. Placing Extension Station." 
This signified — " My name is John Doe, I am tele- 
phoning from number 1234, party L. I have finished 
installing an extension station. Where shall I go 
next?" 

In the same way standard signals are remembered 
best by the man who signals and are understood 
quickest by the man who receives them, with a di- 
rect increase in speed to the work done. 

Standard Man Is the Man upon Whom Studies 
Are Made. — The standard man is the ideal man to 
observe and with whom to obtain the best Motion 
Study and Time Study data. He is the fastest 
worker, working under the direction of the man best 
informed in the particular trade as to the motions of 
best present practice, and being timed by a Time 
Study Expert. 

Relation Between the Standard Man, the First- 
Class Man, the Given Man and the Task.— The " first- 
class man " under Scientific Management means the 
man who is best fitted by nature and by training to 
do the task permanently or until promoted. 

The " given man " is the man who is actually put 
to work at the task, whether or not he is well fitted 
for its performance. 

The " task " is that percentage of the standard 



STANDARDIZATION 153 

man's achievement that the given man to whom the 
task is to be assigned can do continuously and thrive, 
that he can do easily enough to win his bonus with- 
out injuring himself, temporarily or permanently, in 
any way. 

Writing the Standard Means for Conveying In- 
formation. — Under Scientific Management, and even 
in the early stages of Transitory Management, writ- 
ing is the standard means of conveying information. 

All orders, without exception, should be in writing. 
This insures that the " eye workers " get their di- 
rections in the most impressive form; does away with 
the need of constant oral repetition; eliminates con- 
fusion; insures a clear impression in the mind of the 
giver as well as of the receiver of the order as to ex- 
actly what is wanted; and provides a record of all 
orders given. Putting the instructions in writing in 
no way precludes utilizing the worker's natural apti- 
tude to learn by imitation, for he also always has the 
opportunity to watch and imitate the workings of the 
functional teachers as well as his scientifically taught 
fellow-workers. 

The Instruction Card the Standard Method of Con- 
veying Instructions as to the Task. — The records of 
the work of the standard man are contained in data 
of the Motion Study and Time Study department. 
These records, in the form in which they are to be 
used by the man who is to perform the task, are, for 
the benefit of that man, incorporated in what is 
known as the instruction card. 

Definition of the Instruction Card. — The instruc- 
tion card is a set of directions for the man, telling 



i 5 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

him what he is to do, how he is to do it, how long it 
should take him to do it, and what he will receive for 
doing it, and giving him an opportunity to call for, 
and obtain, assistance the instant that he finds he 
cannot do it, and to report back to the managers as 
to how he has succeeded in the performance. 

The Instruction Card has been called " a self- 
producer of a predetermined product." 

Comparative Definition of Instruction Cards, Un- 
der Scientific Management. — There are three types 
of Instruction Cards, which may be described as fol- 
lows: 

Type One : — Largely geographical, telling 

i. Where to Work. 

2. From Whom to Take Orders. 

3. What to Do. 

Type Two: — Typical engineer's specification, — 
telling 

1. Results desired. 

2. Qualities of Products. 

Type Three : — A list of elementary, step-by-step 
instructions, subdivided into their motions, with time 
allowed for each timable element, preferably for each 
motion, and a division between 

1. Getting ready. 

2. Making or constructing. 

3. Clearing up. This is the only type used by 
Scientific Management. 

Directions* Pay Allowance and Time Allowance 
Essential. — The Instruction Card under Scientific 
Management must contain directions, and state the 
pay allowance and time allowance. 



STANDARDIZATION 155 

Directions as to how the work shall be done elim- 
inate waste by cutting out all wrong methods and 
prescribing the right method exactly. 

The setting of a time in which the work is to be 
done is a great stimulus to the worker, and is also 
necessary, because upon the attainment of this set 
time depends the ability of the managers to pay the 
bonus to the worker, and also to maintain a schedule, 
or time-table, that will make possible the maintain- 
ing of necessary conditions for others, in turn, to 
earn their bonuses. It cannot be too often em- 
phasized that the extra wages are paid to the men 
out of the savings, and are absolutely dependent upon 
the fact of there being savings. It is only when the 
worker does the work within the time prescribed, 
that the managers do save enough to warrant the 
payment of the extra wages that compensate the 
man for doing the stipulated quantity of work. 

The instruction card contains a statement of the 
wage or bonus that will be earned for the complete 
performance of the task set therein, thus furnishing 
an incentive at the time that the work is done. 

Standard Division of Instruction Card Necessary. — 
There are many reasons for dividing an instruction 
card in the present standard way, namely, — 

(a) to reduce the amount of time study observa- 
tion necessary to be taken, 

(b) to reduce the difficulties of synthesizing the 
time studied element, 

(c) to locate quickly just where the worker 
needs help and instruction to enable him to 
achieve his task, 



i 5 6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

(d) to keep up the interest of the worker by 
having short time elements with which to 
measure his relative ability, 

(e) to present the subject-matter of instruction 
in such natural subdivisions that resting 
places are automatically provided that 
allow the mind to recover from its absorption 
of each subdivision. This provides definite 
stopping places between co-related units of 
instruction holding the attention as a com- 
plete unit against distraction, and a com- 
plete resting place between subdivisions 
that permits the mind to relax and wander 
without losing complete grasp of each unit 
as a whole. 

Detailed Instruction Educative. — The greater the 
perfection of the detail of the instruction card, the 
greater the educative value of this plan of manage- 
ment. The educative value of the instruction card 
will be discussed at length under Teaching. 

Those inexperienced in Scientific Management 
have complained that the detail of Instruction Cards 
and other parts of Scientific Management is tiresome. 
Dr. Taylor has answered such objectors in Discus- 
sions, and also in his own directions for planning the 
Instruction Card, which are to be found in " Shop 
Management." 

The advantages of the detailed instruction card 
are more than might appear on the surface. Not 
only does the man whose attention is easily distracted 
keep to his work better if he is told every possible 
detail, but also the cards when filed can be taken out 



STANDARDIZATION 157 

again, and every detail and item of the method re- 
viewed at length and revised if necessary. 

The experienced worker who gets to know the in- 
struction by rote is not bothered by extreme detail. 
On the contrary, he grasps it at a glance, and focuses 
his mind upon any new feature and upon the speed 
and exactness of muscular action needed for compli- 
ance with the card. 

Language of Instruction Card Important. — The 
language in which instructions and commands are 
transmitted on the instruction card is of sufficient im- 
portance to warrant careful consideration. It would 
be helpful if the instruction card clerk and the man 
who is to use the instruction cards were both mas- 
ters of English, but this is hardly to be expected. 
The best substitute for such special English train- 
ing is a " System " for the use of the instruction card 
clerk that will give him some outline of English that 
will by degrees make his wording terse, simple and 
unambiguous. 

He should be impressed with the value of short 
sentences, and of sentences that will require no 
punctuation other than a period at the end. The 
short sentence is the most important step toward 
brevity, terseness, conciseness and clear thinking. 

The second most important feature is that the in- 
struction card clerk always uses the same standard 
wording for the same instructions. Repetition of 
phrasing is a virtue, and the use of the same word 
for the same thing and the same meaning repeatedly 
is very desirable. The wording, phrasing and sen- 
tencing should be standard wherever possible. 



i S 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Standard Phrasing Desirable. — After a short time 
a phrase or sentence that is often repeated will be 
recognized as quickly as will a word or a letter. 
Men who cannot read and write at all are compara- 
tively few. Men who can read and write but little 
are many. It is entirely possible to teach such men 
standard groupings, which they can recognize on the 
Instruction Card and use in a very short time. 

For example, — laborers who do not even know 
their alphabets will learn quickly to read setting 
marks on cut stone. 

Just as mnemonic symbols save time and effort, so 
standard phrasing aids toward finding out what is 
to be done, and remembering how it is to be done. 5 
Both of these can be accomplished if the standardiza- 
tion is so complete that directions can be read and 
remembered almost at a glance. 6 

Specific Terms Helpful. — To be most effective, 
directions should be in the imperative form, and in 
specific terms. 

The history and growth of language shows that 
the language of the savage consisted of vague gen- 
eral terms as compared to the specific individual 
terms of the modern language of civilized man. 
There are examples to be seen on every hand to-day 
where the oral language of instructions and orders to 
proceed, that are given to the worker, are still more 
vague, comparatively, than the language between 
savages. 

6 C. B. Going, Methods of the Sante Fe, p. 66. 
6 For desirability of standard signals see R. T. Dana, Handbook of 
Steam Shovel Work, p. 32. 



STANDARDIZATION 159 

Similarity of Form and Shape Advisable. — As for 

the form and shape, as Dr. Taylor says, " anything 
that will transmit ideas by sketch or wording will 
serve as an instruction card." He advises, however, 
taking advantage of the saving in time to be gained 
by having the instruction cards as nearly alike as pos- 
sible. They may, for convenience' sake, vary as to 
length, but in width, ruling, spacing and wording they 
should be as nearly alike as possible. 

Standard Surroundings Valuable. — Standard en- 
vironment, or surroundings, of the worker are val- 
uable for two reasons: 

1. Because they directly increase output by elim- 
inating everything which might distract attention or 
cause needless fatigue, and by assisting in the attain- 

\ ment of more output by having the best possible sur- 
roundings for greater output. 

2. Because all surroundings suggest an easy 
achievement. Knowing that everything has been 
done to make his work possible and easy, the worker 
feels this atmosphere of possibility and ease around 
him, and the suggestive power of this is strong. 

Unnecessary Fatigue Should Be Eliminated. — The 
walls, appliances and furniture, and the clothing of 
the worker should be of that color which will rest his 
eyes from the fatigue of the work. All unnecessary 
noise should be eliminated, and provision should be 
made, where possible, that the workers may enjoy 
their sleep or their rest hours in perfect quiet. 

Records show the value of having quiet reign in 
and near the camp, that the workers may not be 
disturbed. Even though they are not disturbed 



160 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

enough to be waked up, every noise that is registered 
in the brain affects the body, for it is now conceded 
that the body reflects every phase of mental activity. 

All Mental States Affect Bodily States.— Dr. 
Stratton says : " It is now generally accepted that 
the body reflects every shade of psychic operations; 
that in all manner of mental action there is some 
physical expression." 7 All consciousness is motor 
" is the brief expression of this important truth; every 
mental state somehow runs over into a correspond- 
ing bodily state." 

Elimination of Worry Assists in Concentrating At- 
tention. — The more fireproof the building, and the 
more stable the other conditions, the greater the 
emciency of the inmate. Burglar-proof buildings not 
only actually induce better sleep, in that possible in- 
trusions are eliminated, but give a state of mental 
peace by the removal of apprehension. So also, a 
" germ proof " house is not only really more health- 
ful for an inmate, but eliminates worry over possible 
danger of ill health. The mental health of the 
worker not only controls, in a measure, his physical 
health, but also his desire to work. Having no dis- 
tractions, he can put his mind upon that which is 
given him to do. 

Distracted Attention Causes Fatigue. — The atten- 
tion of the worker is apt to be distracted not only by 
recognized dangers, such as burglars, fires, and dis- 
ease, but also by other transitory things that, in- 
voluntarily on his part, take his mind from the work 
in hand. A flickering light distracts the attention 
7 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, pp. 268-269. 



STANDARDIZATION 161 

and causes fatigue, whether we have consciously no- 
ticed it or not. Many things are recorded by the 
senses without one's being conscious of them. 

For example, the ceasing of a clock to tick, al- 
though we have not noticed that it was ticking. An- 
other example is the effect upon the pulse or the 
brain of being spoken to when asleep. 

The flickering lamp of the chronocyclegraph device 
is much more fatiguing than the steady lamp of plain 
cyclegraphs. 

Proper Placing of Workers Eliminates Distracted 
Attention. — Workers must be placed so that they 
do not see intermittently moving objects out of the 
corners of their eyes. In the early history of man 
it was continuously necessary to watch for first evi- 
dence of things behind one, or at a distance, in order 
to be safe from an enemy. From generations of sur- 
vival of the most fit there have developed human 
eyes most sensitive to moving objects that are seen 
out of the corner of the eye. Even civilized man has 
his attention distracted quickest, and most, by those 
moving objects that he sees the least distinctly, and 
furthest to one side from the direction in which he 
is looking. 

The leaf that moves or the grass that trembles 
may attract the attention where seen " out of the 
corner of the eye " to a point where it will even cause 
a start and a great fear. 

As an example of the distracting effect of moving 
objects seen " out of the corner of the eye," try read- 
ing a book facing a window in a car where the mov- 
ing scenery can be seen on each side of the book. 



i62 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

The flitting object will interrupt one, one cannot get 
the full meaning out of what one is reading — yet 
if one lays down the book and looks directly at the 
scenery, the mind can concentrate to a point where 
one does not see that moving scenery which is di- 
rectly in front of the eyes. 

There is a great difference in this power of sensi- 
tiveness of the corners of some workers' eyes from 
that of others. The first move of Scientific Manage- 
ment is to place and arrange all workers, as far as is 
possible, in such a position that nothing to distract 
them will be behind them, and later to see that the 
eyes of workers are tested, that those whose eyes are 
most sensitive may be placed accordingly. 

This Elimination May Take Place in All Kinds 
of Work. — The necessity of removing all things 
which will distract the attention is as great for the 
brain worker as for the shop or construction worker. 
All papers that attract the eye, and hence the at- 
tention, should be cleaned from the desk, everything 
except that on which the worker is working. The 
capability of being distracted by the presence of 
other things varies in all workers. 

In using the dictaphone, one can do much better 
work if one is in a room where there is little or noth- 
ing to distract attention. An outline of work ahead 
may tempt to study and planning of what is ahead, 
rather than to carrying out the task scheduled for 
immediate performance. The presence of a paper 
with an outline merely of what is being done is found 
to be a great help, as the eye can rest on that, and, 
after a few moments, will become so accustomed to 



STANDARDIZATION 163 

it that the whole attention will be given to the dictat- 
ing. 

Benefits of Eliminating " Decision of Choice." — 

There is always time lost by " decision of choice." 
The elimination of this is well illustrated by the 
bricks that are piled on the packet, which decides 
for the bricklayer which brick is next, making an 
obvious sequence, hence the saving of time of de- 
cision regarding motions, also the saving coming 
from the play for position. Oftentimes a handicap 
of slow mental action can be compensated for, in a 
measure, by planning ahead in great detail. In this 
way, if the plan is made sufficiently in detail, there is 
absolutely no time possible left to be wasted in " de- 
cision of choice." The worker goes from one step 
to another, and as these steps are arranged logically, 
his mind does not tend to wander away, but to keep 
on in an uninterrupted sequence to the goal. 

Standard Equipment Important. — As for equip- 
ment, the phenomena of habit are among the most im- 
portant features of the psychology of management and 
the possibilities of the elimination of unnecessary 
waste resulting from taking advantage of this feature 
is possible only when the equipment, surroundings 
and methods of the worker are standardized. There- 
fore the insistence upon standardization, even down 
to the smallest things, is vital for achieving the great- 
est output. 

For example, — suppose the keys of the monotype 
machine, piano or typewriter were not located per- 
manently in the same relative position. Consider the 
loss of time in not being able to use habits in find- 



164 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ing each key. Such an arrangement sounds ridic- 
ulous on the face of it, yet it is a common practice 
for many operators, especially of monotype ma- 
chines, to make a complete mental decision as to the 
muscles and fingers with which they will strike the 
desired key. 

Imagine the records of output of a typist who was 
using a different keyboard every day, if there were 
that many kinds of keyboards. It is easy for any- 
one to conceive the great advantages of standard 
keyboards for such machines, but only those who 
have made a study of output of all kinds of workers 
can fully realize that similar differences in sizes of 
output are being produced by the workers of the 
country for lack of similar standardization of work- 
ing conditions and equipment. 

Utmost Standardization Does Not Make " Ma- 
chines" of the Workers Operating Under It. — The 
attention of those who believe that standardization 
makes machines out of the workers themselves, is 
called to the absence of such effect upon the typist as 
compared with the scribe, the monotype and linotype 
operator as compared with the compositor, and the 
mechanical computing machine operator as com- 
pared with the arithmetician. 

Standard Methods Demand Standard Tools and 
Devices. — Habits cannot be standardized until the 
devices and tools used are of standard pattern. It 
is not nearly so essential to have the best tools as it 
is to have standard tools. 8 Experience in the hos- 

8 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 285. Harper Ed., pp. 
123-124. 



STANDARDIZATION 165 

pitals points to the importance of this fact in surgery. 
Tools once adopted as standard should not be changed 
until the improvement or greater efficiency from their 
use will compensate for the loss during the period of 
" breaking in " the user, that is, of forming new habits 
in order to handle strange tools. As will be brought 
out more fully under " Teaching," good habits are as 
difficult to break as bad ones, the only difference being 
that one does not usually desire to break good ones. 
Naturally, if a new device is introduced, what was an 
excellent habit for the old device becomes, perhaps, 
a very bad habit for the new device. There must 
come a time before the manipulation of the new 
device has become a habit when output will go down 
and costs will go up. It is necessary, before in- 
troducing this device, to investigate whether the ul- 
timate reduction of costs will be sufficient to allow 
for this period of lower production. It is not fair, 
however, to the new device or method really to con- 
sider its record until the use of it has become such a 
habit with the workers as was the use of the old 
device. 

No one who has not made a study of cutting tools 
can realize the crying need for standardizing in that 
field. Dr. Taylor says, writing in the Revised " Shop 
Management" of 191 1, — "Hardly a shop can be 
found in which tools made from a dozen different 
qualities of steel are not used side by side, in many 
cases with little or no means of telling one make 
from another." 9 The effect of the slightest varia- 
tion in the shape or the method of handling the tool 

9 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, revised 191 1, pp. 124-125. 



i65 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

upon the three dimensions of the work that the tool 
can do in a given time, is astounding. 10 More im- 
portant, from the psychological point of view, is the 
effect upon the mind of the worker of seeing such 
unstandardized equipment ; of having to stop to select 
the particular tool that he desires, and thus having 
his attention distracted from his work; and of know- 
ing that his act of judgment in so selecting is of no 
permanent value, as the next time he needs a similar 
tool he will probably have to reselect. 

Standard Clothing a Crying Need. — There is a 
great need today for standardization in the field of 
clothing. The idea prevalent that wearing apparel 
is attractive only when it is " different " is unfor- 
tunate in its influence upon the cost of living. How 
I much more unfortunate is it, when it affects the mind 
of the worker, and leads him to look upon standard 
working clothes with distaste. 

To a careful observer, there is nothing more dis- 
heartening than a study of workers' clothes, especially 
the clothes of women workers. Too warm clothes 
where work requiring high temperature is done, with 
no provision for adding needed wraps for the trip 
home ; high-heeled shoes where the worker must 
stand at her task for hours at a time; tight waists and 
ill fitting skirts, where every muscle should have free 
play,— these are but examples of hundreds of places 
where reforms are needed. 

Little or no blame attaches to the worker for this 
state of affairs. Seldom, if ever, does the manage- 

10 F. W. Taylor, On the Art of Cutting Metals, A. S. M. E., No. 
1 1 19. 



STANDARDIZATION 167 

merit attempt to standardize working clothes. More- 
over, the underlying idea is not made clear that such 
clothes bear no resemblance to the meaningless uni- 
forms which are badge and symbol of service. They 
resemble rather the blouse or pinafore of the artist, 
the outfit of the submarine diver or the fireman. 

The Sports Present a Fine Example of This. — The 
greatest advance toward standardizing clothing has 
come in the sports, which, in many respects, present 
admirable object-lessons. In the tennis court, on the 
links, on the gridiron, the diamond, or track, the gar- 
ment worn of itself does not increase fatigue. On the 
contrary, it is so designed as not to interfere with the 
efficiency of the wearer. 

Management Should Provide Clothing Stand- 
ards. — Under Ultimate Management the most effi- 
cient clothing for any kind of work will be stand- 
ardized. The expense of such articles of clothing 
as will add to the quantity or quality of output will, 
directly or indirectly, be borne by the management, 
just as it now bears the expense for equipment and 
tools. These essentials being supplied, and the un- 
derlying dignity and importance of standardization 
understood, the worker will gladly conform, and sup- 
ply the minor accessories. 

Such Standards Must Apply to All. — It is of the 
utmost importance that such standardization, when 
adopted, should apply to the clothing of all, managers 
as well as employes. When the old pride in the 
" crafts " returns, or when efficiency is as universal 
in the industrial world as it is in the world of sport, 
— then one may look for results. 



168 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Effects of Such Standards Enormous. — The effect 
which such standardized clothing would have on the 
physical and mental well-being of the wearers can 
scarcely be overestimated. Fatigue would be elim- 
inated, and the old "joy in working" might return. 
Not being based upon looks alone, — though the 
aesthetic appeal should not be neglected, — the 
worker's ability to work more and better with greater 
content of mind would be the criterion. The suc- 
cess of the clothing would be scientifically measured, 
the standards improved, and progress itself become 
standardized. 

Standard Methods Eliminate Fatigue. — There is 
no doubt in the minds of those who have made it a 
study, that the constant receipt of the same kind of 
impressions, caused by the same kind of stimulation 
of the same terminal sense organs, causes semi-auto- 
matic response with less resulting fatigue, correspond- 
ing to the lessened effort. J All methods should, there- 
fore, as far as possible, be made up of standard ele- 
ments under standard conditions, with standard de- 
vices and appliances, and they should be standardized 
from the standpoint of all of our senses as to color, 
shape, size, weight, location, position and surface 
texture, that the worker may grasp at a single 
thought by means of each or all his senses, that no 
special muscles or other fatiguing processes need be 
operated to achieve the standard result desired. 

Muscles That Tire Easily Should Be Saved.— It 
must be remembered that all work should be so ar- 
ranged that the muscle that changes the position or 
shape of the eye or the size of its pupil should not 



STANDARDIZATION 169 

be operated except when necessary. Care in plan- 
ning can oftentimes standardize conditions so as to 
relieve these and other muscles, which grow tired 
easily, or transfer this work to other muscles which 
are not so easily tired. 

Not only do the reactions from such standards re- 
quire less bodily effort, but it also requires less mental 
effort to work under methods that are standardized. 
Therefore, both directly and indirectly, the worker 
benefits by the standardization.^/ 

Rest from Fatigue Is Provided for Scientifically. — 
Scientific Management provides and prescribes rest 
for overcoming fatigue of the worker more scien- 
tifically and economically than he could possibly pro- 
vide it for himself. J Weber's law is that " our power 
of detecting differences between sensations does not 
depend on the absolute amount of difference in the 
stimuli, but on the relative amount." u The addi- 
tional fatigue from handling additional weights causes 
fatigue to increase with the weight, but not in direct 
proportion to the extra weight handled. When the 
correct weight of the unit to be handled has been 
determined, the additional weight will cause fatigue 
in quantities greater in proportion than the extra 
weight handled. ! 

Rest Periods Arranged for Best Good of Work and 
Worker. — If possible, rest from fatigue is so ar- 
ranged as to interfere with work the least. The 
necessary rest periods of the individuals of a gang 
should come at that period of the cycle that does not 
cause any allowance to be made for rest in between 

11 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 11. 



i7o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

the performance of the dependent operations of dif- 
ferent members of the gang. Such an arrangement 
will enable the worker to keep a sustained interest 
in the work. 

Work with Animals Should Be Standardized. — 
The necessity for standardizing work with animals 
has been greatly underestimated, although it has been 
done more or less successfully in systems for con- 
struction work. For work with horses and carts, 
the harnesses and the carts should be standardized 
and standards only should be used. The instruction 
card dealing with the action, motions and their 
sequence should be standard to save time in changing 
teams from the full to the empty cart and vice versa. 
While standardized action is necessary with men, it 
is even more necessary for men in connection with 
the work of animals, such as horses, mules and oxen. 
The instruction card for the act of changing of teams 
from an empty cart to a full cart should state the side 
that the driver gets down from his seat to the ground, 
the sequence in which he unhooks the harness and 
hooks it up again, and the side on which he gets up 
to his seat in the cart./XEven the wording of his or- 
ders to his horse should be standardized. 

While this book will deal with the human mind 
only, it is in order to state that a book could be 
written to advantage on training the horse by means 
of a standard man-horse language and a standard 
practice of their combined action. 

Animals have not the capacity for forming new 
habits that they have for remembering the sequence 



STANDARDIZATION 171 

of former acts. They have little ability to adapt 
themselves to a sequence of motions caused by un- 
expected conditions, unless those conditions suggest 
the opportunity of revenge, or the necessity of self- 
preservation, or immediate welfare. This is only 
touched upon here from the man side. 

Naturally, the output earning power of a man work- 
ing with animals depends largely upon the handling 
of the animal, and the man can never attain his full 
output, or the managers get what they might expect 
to get from the man-horse combination, until the psy- 
chology of the horse, or mule, or elephant, or what- 
ever animal is used, is also studied and combined with 
the other studies on Scientific Management. : 

An example of the benefits of standardized work 
with animals : — The standard fire signals in the Fire 
House cause such perfect horse action that fire horses 
always have a reputation for superior intelligence. 
The Worker Who Is Best Suited for His Work in 
I the Performing Department Is Incapable of Discover- 
ing the Best Method. — An exaggerated case of the 
{ result of leaving the selection of the method to the 
\ worker is that of the West Indian negro who carried 
the wheelbarrow on his head. 12 This well-known 
example, though it seems impossible and absurd, is 
no more inefficient than are hundreds of methods in 
use in the industrial world to-day. 

Under Scientific Management Quality Is Stand- 
ardized. — Scientific Management determines exactly 
what quality as well as what quantity of work is 

12 Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 65. 



172 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

needed, and the method prescribed is that one not 
only of lower costs, but which fits the particular need 
of the particular occasion most accurately. 

Workers are kept under pressure for quality, yet 
the pressure is not irksome, because the worker un- 
derstands exactly what quality is desired, and what 
variations from exactness are permitted. 

Variations in Quality or Exactness Indicated by 
Standard Signs. — All dimensions on the drawings of 
work have either a letter or symbol or plus or minus 
signs. There is much to be said about the effect 
this has on the worker. 

i. It gives the worker immediate knowledge of the 
prescribed quality demanded. 

2. He does not have to worry as to the maximum 
variation that he can make without interfering with 
his bonus. 

3. There is no fear of criticism or discharge for 
using his own faulty judgment. 

Scientific Management Has a Standard " Method of 
Attack." — We must note next the standard " method 
of attack " in Scientific Management. It is recog- 
nized that sensations are modified by those that 
^ come before, by those that come simultaneously, and 
by those that follow.. The psychic effect of each and 
every kind of sensation depends upon what other 
sensations have been experienced, are being experi- 
enced at that time, or will presently be experienced. 
The scientific manager realizes this, and provides for 
the most desirable sequence of sensation; then, hav- 
ing seen, to the best of his ability, that the sensation 
occurs at the time which he desires it to occur, he 



STANDARDIZATION 173 

provides for concentration upon that one sensation 
and elimination of all other thoughts or desires. 

Professor Faraday says : " That part of self-educa- 
tion which consists in teaching the mind to resist the 
desires and inclinations until they are proved to be 
right is the most important of all." How this is 
shown under Scientific Management will be shown 
in " Teaching." It is sufficient to say here that the 
method of attack of Scientific Management is to 
eliminate all possible bodily as well as mental exer- 
tion, — ■ to cut down motions, to cut down even sen- 
sations and such mental acts as visualizing. The ob- 
ject is, not so much to eliminate these motions and 
these sensations, and this visualizing from the life 
of the worker, as simply to use up less energy in 
producing the output. This allows the worker an 
extra supply of energy upon which to fall back to 
produce greater output and to get greater wages. If 
his energy is not all utilized in his working hours, 
then, as will be shown more clearly under " Welfare," 
there is that much more left for him to enjoy in his 
own leisure time. 

SUMMARY 

Result to the Work. — Under Traditional Manage- 
ment, where standards are not established, the worker 
is constantly delayed by the necessity for decision of 
choice, by the lack of knowing what should be chosen, 
and by a dearth of standard equipment, materials and 
tools from which to choose.-^ 

Under Transitory Management, with the introduc- 
tion of standards, the elimination of delays and the 



174 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

provision for standard surroundings and supplies of 
all kinds, comes increased output of the desired 
quality. 

Under Scientific Management, not only is output 
increased and quality assured, but results of work can 
be predicted. 13 

Results to the Worker. — Results from standardiza- 
tion to the worker under Traditional and Transitory 
Management are the same as, and are included in, 
results under Scientific Management. 

State of Worker's Feelings Improved. — Under 
Scientific Management the state of the employe's 
feelings is improved by the standardization. It is a 
recognized fact that mental disturbance from such 
causes as fear of losing his job will sometimes have 
the same ill effect upon a workman as does overwork, 
or insufficient rest for overcoming fatigue. It will 
occasionally wear upon the nervous system and the 
digestive organs. Now Scientific Management by 
standardization removes from the workman this fear 
of losing his job, for the worker knows that if he 
conforms to the standard instructions he certainly will 
not lose his position unless the business as a whole 
is unsuccessful. 

On the other hand, feelings, such as happiness and 
contentment, and even hearing rhythmic sounds, 
music, etc., are an aid toward increasing output. ] For 
the best results, therefore, under Scientific Manage- 
ment the ^w^rker is furnished with standard condi- 
tions ; his train of ideas is held upon the work in hand 
without interruption, and the working conditions are 

13 C. G. Barth, A. S. M. E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46. 



STANDARDIZATION 175 

such that the managers furnish the worker with in- 
ducements to conform to the standard conditions 
happily. 

Worker's Retentive Power Increased. — We note 
in the second place, the increased retentive power of 
anyone who is working with standards. There is 
great difference between different people of the same 
degree of intelligence as to their ability to memorize 
certain things, especially such as sequences of the 
elements of a process. This lack of retentive power 
is illustrated particularly well in the cases often found 
where the student has difficulty in learning to spell. 
It is here that the standard instruction card comes 
into play to good effect. Its great detail remedies 
the defect in memorizing of certain otherwise bril- 
liant workers, and its standard form and repetition of 
standard phrases aid the retentive power of the man 
who has a good memory. 

Standard Elements Serve as Memory Drills. — This 
use of standardized elements makes the time elapsing 
between repetitions shorter, for, while it may be a 
long time before the worker again encounters the 
identical work or method, still, the fact that elements 
are standard means that he will have occasion to re- 
peat elements frequently, and that his memory will 
each time be further drilled by these repetitions^/ 

Gang Instruction Card an Aid to Memory. — The 
gang instruction card has been used with good effect 
at the beginning of unfamiliar repetitive cycles of 
work to train the memory of whole gangs of men at 
once, and to cut down the elapsed time from the time 
when one man's operation is sufficiently completed to 



176 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

permit the next man to commence his. It has been 
found, in the case of setting timbers in mill construc- 
tion for example, that to have one man call out the 
next act in the sequence as fast as the preceding one 
is finished, until all have committed the sequence to 
memory, will materially decrease the time necessary 
for the entire sequence of elements in a cycle of work. 

Individual Instruction Card an Inanimate Mem- 
ory. — The instruction card supplies a most accurate 
memory in inanimate form, that neither blurs nor 
distorts with age. 

The ranter against this standard memory is no 
more sensible than a man who would advocate the 
worker's forgetting the result of his best experience, 
that his mind might be periodically exercised by re- 
discovering the method of least waste anew with 
each problem. 

Other things being equal, that worker has the long- 
est number of years of earning power who remem- 
bers the largest number of right methods; or at least 
remembers where to find them described in detail; 
and, conversely, those who have no memory, and 
know not where to look for or to lay their hand on 
the method of least waste, remain at the beginning 
of their industrial education. " Experience," from 
an earning standpoint, does not exist when the mind 
does not retain a memory of the method. The in- 
struction card, then, acts as a form of transferable 
memory — it conserves memory. Once it is made, 
it furnishes the earning power without the necessity 
of the former experience having been had more than 
once. 



STANDARDIZATION 177 

Plans, details, free-hand sketches, and two-dimen- 
sion photographs surpass the highest form of mental 
imagery, and such cultivated imagery is undoubtedly 
a high achievement. There is no kind of memory, 
visualization, nor constructive imagination that can 
equal the stereoscopic or three-dimension photographs 
that may accompany the instruction card for enabling 
the worker to " see the completed work before it is 
begun." Probably the greatest hindrance to develop- 
ment of lower forms of animal life is their inability 
to picture past experiences, and the reason for the 
intellectual strides made by the worker under Scien- 
tific Management is the development of this faculty. 

A Conserver of Individual Memories. — Many peo- 
ple believe that the memory of a person ceases at his 
death. Whether this is so or not, the loss to the 
world, and particularly the industrial world, of not 
having the instruction card for the passing on of the 
worker's experience to the workers who follow is 
stupendous and incalculable, and this loss, like so 
many other losses, can be eliminated by the process 
of making written standards. 

Motor Memory Improved by Standardization. — 
Not only are the retentive powers of the brain im- 
proved, but also the brain centers, and the muscles, 
etc., become trained through standardization. With 
standardization a long sequence of muscular motions 
or operations can be noted at a glance, and can be 
remembered without difficulty. 

Standards Prevent Men from Becoming Ma- 
i chines. — Those who object to the worker taking ad- 
\ vantage of these scientifically derived standards which 



178 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

aid the memory, can only be compared to such people 
as desire the workers to turn into unthinking animals. 
Psychologists believe that some of the lower animals 
have no memory. Turning the workers into ma- 
chines which do not in any way utilize thought-saving 
devices is simply putting them but little above the 
class of these lower, memory-less, animals. J; 

Through Standards the Worker's Attention Is 
Gained at the Start. — The general act of attention 
plays an important part in Scientific Management 
The insistence upon standardized performance re- 
quires the utmost attention at the beginning of learn- 
ing a new method of performance. ] This extra output 
of mental activity, which is always'fequired for accom- 
plishing new methods of work, could not be continu- 
ously maintained, but after the new method has once 
been learned, its repetition requires less attention, con- 
sequently less fatigue. The attention of the worker 
is, therefore, strongly demanded at the beginning and 
when, later, it is not needed except for new and un- 
familiar work, an opportunity arises for invention and 
mental advancement. 

Attention Allowed to Lapse and Then Recalled. — 
Standardization shifts the objects of attention and 
eliminates the need for constant concentration. The 
standardization of processes relieves the worker to 
a marked extent from the extremely fatiguing mental 
effort of unproductive fixed, valueless, and unnecessary 
attention on the stream of consciousness. xThe re- 
peated elements which form a part of all stand- 
ards reconcentrates the attention if it is allowed to 
lapse. 



STANDARDIZATION 179 

Standardization Eliminates the Shifting View- 
point. — Under old-time Traditional Management the 
way that the man happened to feel at the particular 
time made a great difference, not only in his work, 
but in his relations with other men. The standard- 
ization not only of the relationship between the men, 
but of the relationships between the foreman, the 
manager, and the worker, the fact that the disciplin- 
ing is put in the hands of a man who is not biased by 
his personal feelings in his dealings with the men; — 
all of these things mean that the viewpoint of the 
men as to their work and their relationship remains 
fixed. This standardizing of the viewpoint is an enor- 
mous help toward increasing output. 

The Common Viewpoint Is an Impetus. — There 
are those who believe that the concerted standard 
process of thought of the many minds assists the 
operation of any one mind. However this may be, 
there is no doubt that the fact that the standard 
thought is present in all minds at one time at least 
eliminates some cause for discussion and leads to unity 
and consequent success in the work. 

Invention Is Stimulated. — Chances for invention 
and construction are provided by standardization. 14 
By having a scientifically derived standard method as 
a starter, the worker can exert much of his mental 
power toward improvement from that point upward, 
instead of being occupied with methods below it and 
in wasting, perhaps, a lifetime in striving to get. up 

14 Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manu- 
factures, Sees. 224-225. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book 
I, chap. I, p. 4. 



180 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

to it, 15 this in distinction to the old plan, where a 
worker knew only what he could personally remem- 
ber of what had been handed down by tradition, tra- 
dition being the memory of society. Under Scientific 
Management a worker has many repetitions of ex- 
perience, some of which he does not always recognize 
as such. When he does recognize them, he has the 
power and daring for rapid construction that come 
to those only who " know that they know." 

Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, 
brings that power to the worker sooner. The con- 
scious knowledge of familiarity of process is an es- 
sential for attaining the complete benefits of experi- 
ence. 

Far from making machines out of the men, stand- 
ardization causes a mental state that leads to inven- 
tion, for the reason that the worker's brain is in most 
intimate contact with the work, and yet has not been 
unnecessarily fatigued by the work itself. No more 
monotonous work could be cited than that of that boy 
whose sole duty was to operate by hand the valve 
to the engine, yet he invented the automatic control 
of the slide valve used throughout the world to-day. 

Standardization Prevents Accidents. — The results 
of standardization so far given, concern changes in 
the worker's mental capacity, or attitude. Such 
changes, and other changes, will be discussed from a 
different viewpoint under " Teaching." As for re- 
sults to the worker's body, one of the most important 
is the elimination of causes for accidents. 

The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing pro- 
15 F. W. Taylor, paper 1119, A. S. M. E., para. 51; para. 98-100. 



STANDARDIZATION 181 

vided for by Scientific Management provides against 
accidents from defects in equipment, tools, or mate- 
rial. The fact that instructions are written, provides 
against wrong methods of handling work. 16 The con- 
centrated attention caused by standardization, is a 
safeguard against accidents that occur from the 
worker's carelessness. 17 The proper allowance of 
rest for overcoming fatigue, insures that the worker's 
mind is fresh enough to enable him to comply with 
standards, and, finally, the spirit of cooperation that 
underlies Scientific Management is an added check 
against accidents, in that everyone is guarding his 
fellows as well as himself. 

Progress of Standardization Assured. — As Scien- 
tific Management becomes older, progress will be 
faster, because up to this time there has been a hin- 
drance standing in the way of rapid advancement of 
the best standards. This hindrance has been the 
tendency of habits of thought coinciding with former 
practice. For example, the design of concrete build- 
ing for years followed the habit of thinking in terms 
of brick, or wood, or steel, and then attempting to 
design and construct in reinforced concrete. Again, 
in the case of the motor car, habits of thinking in 
vehicles drawn by animals for years kept, the design 
unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse vehicles. 
As soon as thought was in terms of power vehicles, 
the efficient motor tr^uck of to-day was made, using 
the power also for power loading and power hoist- 

16 F. A. Parkhurst, Applied Methods of Scientific Management, 
Industrial Engineering. Oct. 1911, p. 251. 

17 H. L. Gantt, paper 928, A. S. M. E., para. 15. 



182 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ing, as is now done in motor trucks specially designed 
for transporting and handling pianos and safes. So, 
also, while the thought was of traditional practice, 
standard practice was held back. Now that the 
theories of standardization are well understood, 
standardization and standards in general can advance 
with great rapidity. 



CHAPTER VII 
RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 

Definition of Record. — A record is, according to 
the Century Dictionary — " something set down in 
writing or delineated for the purpose of preserving 
memory; specifically a register; an authentic or official 
copy of any writing, or an account of any fact 
and proceedings, whether public or private, usually 
entered in a book for preservation; also the book 
containing such copy or account." 1 The synonyms 
given are " note, chronicle, account, minute, mem- 
orandum." 

Few Written Records Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — For the purposes of this preliminary study of 
records, emphasis will be laid on the fact that the 
record is written. Under Traditional Management 
there are practically no such labor records. What 
records are kept are more in the nature of " book- 
keeping records," as Gillette and Dana call them, 
records " showing debits and credits between different 
accounts." In many cases, under Traditional Man- 
agement, not even such records of profit or loss from 
an individual piece of work were kept, the manager, 
in extreme cases, oftentimes " keeping his books in 

1 Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, 
p. 65. 

183 



184 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

his head " and, having only the vaguest idea of the 
state of his finances. 

Importance of Records Realized Under Transitory 
Management. — As has been amply demonstrated in 
discussing Individuality and Standardization, the rec- 
ognition of the value of records is one of the first 
indications of Transitory Management. Since this 
stage of management has Scientific Management in 
view as " a mark to come to," the records evolved 
and used are not discarded by Scientific Manage- 
ment, but are simply perfected. Therefore, there is 
no need to discuss these transitory records, except to 
say that, from the start, quality of records is insisted 
upon before quantity of records. 

No "Bookkeeping" Records Under Scientific 
Management. — Under Scientific Management there 
are no " bookkeeping records " kept of costs as such. 
Instead, there are " time and cost records," so called, 
of the time and efficiency of performance. From 
these, costs can be deduced at any time. Items of 
cost without relation to their causes, on work that 
is not to be repeated, have little value. Cost records, 
as such, usually represent a needless, useless expendi- 
ture of time and money. It must be emphasized that 
Scientific Management can in no way be identified 
with " cost keeping," in the sense that is understood 
to mean aimlessly recording unrelated costs. Under 
Scientific Management costs are an ever-present by- 
product of the system, not a direct product. 

Records Must Lower Costs and Simplify Work. — 
The quantity of records that should be made depends 
on the amount, diversity and state of development 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 185 

of the work done. No record should be made, which 
does not, directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs 
or in some way increase efficiency. The purpose of 
the records, as of Scientific Management in general, 
is to simplify work. Only when this is recognized, 
can the records made be properly judged. Numerous 
as they may at times seem to be, their number is de- 
termined absolutely by the satisfactory manner in 
which they — 

1. Reduce costs. 

2. Simplify work. 

3. Increase efficiency. 

Records of Work and Workers. — Records may be 
of the work or of the worker 2 — that is to say, of ma- 
terial used, tools used, output produced, etc., or of 
individual efficiency, in one form or another. Records 
of efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and 
of managers, and a record may be made of any man 
in several capacities; for example, a record is kept of 
a functional foreman in the form of the work of the 
men who are under him, while another record might 
be kept of him as a worker himself; for example, the 
time being taken that it took him to teach others 
their duties, the time to learn what was to be done 
on any new work, etc. 

Records of Initiative. — Records of initiative are 
embodied in the Suggestion Card. Even under ad- 
vanced Traditional Management the cards are fur- 
nished to the men upon which to write any ideas as 
to improvements. These suggestions are received, 
and, if accepted, are rewarded. 

2 H. L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A. S. M. E., page 2, 



186 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Under Scientific Management such suggestions be- 
come more valuable, for, as has been shown, they are 
based upon standards; thus if accepted, they signify 
not only a real, but a permanent improvement. Their 
greatest value, however, is in the stimulus that they 
furnish to the worker, in the information that they 
furnish the management as to which workers are in- 
terested, and in the spirit of cooperation that they 
foster. 

The worker receives not only a money reward, but 
also publicity, for it is made known which worker 
has made a valuable suggestion. This indicates that 
the worker has shown good judgment. His interest 
is thus stimulated, his attention is held to his work, 
and the habit of initiative comes to him. That this 
habit of initiative can be fostered, is shown by the 
actual fact that in many sorts of work the same man 
constantly makes suggestions. It becomes a habit 
with him to look for the new way, and as he is con- 
stantly rewarded, the interest is not allowed to di- 
minish. 

Records of Good Behavior. — Records of good be- 
havior are incorporated in the White List File. The 
White List File contains the names of all men who 
have ever been employed who merit a recommenda- 
tion, if they should go to work for others, and would 
deserve to be given work as soon as possible, if they 
came back. This White List File should be filled out 
with many details, but even if it contains nothing but 
a record of the names, and the addresses where the 
men can be reached when new work starts up, it has 
a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 187 

again, the element of permanence ; there is a place 
for individuality, and not only does the manager have 
the satisfaction of actually having this list, and of 
using it, but a feeling that his men know that he is 
in some way recognizing them, and endeavoring to 
make them and their good work permanent. 

Records of Achievement — Records of achievement 
vary with the amount and nature of the work done. 
Such records are, as far as possible, marked upon 
programmes. 

Records Made by Worker Where Possible. — 
Wherever possible the worker makes his own records. 
Even when this is not advisable he is informed of 
his record at as short intervals as are practicable. 3 

Records Made on the " Exception Principle." — 
Much time is saved by separating records for the 
inspection of the man above, simply having him ex- 
amine the exceptions to some desired condition, — 
the records which are exceptionally good, the records 
which are exceptionally bad. This not only serves 
as a reward to the man who has a good record, and a 
punishment for the man who has had a bad record, 
but it also enables the manager to discover at once 
what is wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy 
it. 

The value of the exception principle can hardly be 
overestimated. It would be of some value to know 
of exceptionally good or poor work, even if the cause 
were not known. At least one would be made to ob- 
serve the signpost of success or of danger. But, 

3 Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, 
p. VII. 



i88 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

under Scientific Management, the cause appears sim- 
ultaneously with the fact on the record, — thus not 
only indicating the proper method of repeating suc- 
cess, or avoiding failure, in the future, but also show- 
ing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause 
to effect, to the worker himself. 

This Discussion Necessarily Incomplete. — The 
records mentioned above are only a few of the types 
of records under Scientific Management. Discussion 
has been confined to these, because they have the 
most direct effect upon the mind of the worker and 
the manager. Possible records are too numerous, 
and too diverse, to be described and discussed in de- 
tail. They constitute a part of the " how " of Scien- 
tific Management, — the manner in which it operates. 
This is covered completely in the literature of Scien- 
tific Management, written by men who have made 
Scientific Management and its installation a life study. 
We need only further discuss the posting of records, 
and their effect. 

Posting of Records Beneficial. — As has been al- 
ready noted under Individuality, and must be again 
noted under Incentives, much benefit is derived from 
posting records, especially when these are of such a 
character, or are so posted, that the worker may see 
at a glance the comparative excellence of his results. 

SUMMARY 

Results of Records to the Work. 4 — The results of 
recording are the same under all forms of manage- 
ment, if the records are correct. 

" 4 H. L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A. S. M. E., p. 1336. 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES i8g 

Output increases where records are kept. Under 
Traditional Management there is the danger that 
pressure for quantity will affect quality, especially if 
insufficient records of the resultant quality are kept. 
Under Transitory and Scientific Management, quality 
is maintained or improved, both because previous 
records set the standard, and because following rec- 
ords exhibit the quality. 

Results to the Worker. — James says, " A man's 
social use is the recognition which he gets from his 
mates. We are not only gregarious animals, liking 
to be liked in sight of our fellow, but we have an 
innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, and no- 
ticed favorably, by our kind. No more fiendish pun- 
ishment could be devised, were such a thing phys- 
ically possible, than that one should be turned loose 
in society and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the 
members thereof. If no one turned around when we 
entered, answered when we spoke or minded what we 
did, but if every person we met ' cut us dead ' and 
acted as if we were non-existing things, a kind of 
rage and impotent despair would ere long well up in 
us, from which the crudest bodily tortures would be 
a relief; for these would make us feel that, however 
bad might be our plight, we had not sunk to such a 
depth as to be unworthy of attention at all." 5 This 
recognition the worker gets partly through the 
records which are made of him. 

Self-Knowledge Attained Through Records. — 
Through records of output, and especially through 
charts of such records, and timed motion-picture films, 

5 William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 179. 



igo THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

or micro-motion study pictures the worker may, if 
he be naturally observant, or if he be taught to ob- 
serve, gain a fine knowledge of himself. 

The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the re- 
lation of output to, for example, — drink of alcoholic 
beverages; to smoking; to food values; to nutrition; 
to family worries; and to other outside influences; — 
in fact, the effects of numerous different modes of liv- 
ing, are shown promptly to the worker in the form of 
records. 

Two things should here be noted: 

i. The necessity of having more accurate records 
of the worker and the work, that the relation of 
cause to effect may be more precise and authentic. 

2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, 
as well as after, he enters the industrial world, that 
he can better understand and utilize the lesson taught 
by his own records and those of others. 

Educative Value of Worker Making His Own 
Record. — 'Under Scientific Management in its most 
highly developed form, the worker makes his own 
records on his return cards and hands them in. The 
worker thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them 
and by writing them down, what his records are, but 
he also realizes his individual position to-day compared 
to what it was yesterday, and compared to that of his 
fellows in the same line of work. Further, he gains 
accuracy, he gains judgment, he gains a method of 
attack. He realizes that, as the managers are more 
or less recorders, so also he, in recording himself, is 
vitally connected with the management. It is, after 
all, more or less an attitude of mind which he gains 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 191 

by making out these records himself. It is because 
of this attitude of mind, and of the value which it is 
to him, that he is made to make out his own record 
under the ultimate form of management, even though 
at times this may involve a sacrifice of the time in 
which he must do it, and although he may work 
slower than could a specialist at recording, who per- 
haps would, in spite of that, be paid less for doing the 
work. 

Exact Knowledge Valuable. — We cannot em- 
phasize too often in this connection the far-reaching 
psychological effect upon the worker of exact knowl- 
edge of the comparative efficiency of methods. The 
value of this is seldom fully appreciated; for example, 
we are familiar with the many examples where the 
worker has been flattered until he believes that he 
cannot make mistakes or do inefficient work. This 
is most often found where the glowing compliments 
to the manufacturing department, found in the ad- 
vertising pages of the magazine and in the praises 
sung in print by the publicity department, oftentimes 
ends in an individual overconfidence. This unjusti- 
fied self-esteem is soon shattered by accurate com- 
parative records. 

On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and 
the sneers of the jealous, accompanied by such trite 
expressions as — " You can't teach an old dog new 
tricks," have often destroyed self-confidence in a 
worker, who, in the absence of accurate records of his 
efficiency, is trying to judge himself at new methods. 
The jibes and jokes at the new man at the new work, 
and especially at the experienced, efficient man at un- 



i 9 2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

familiar work cease, or at least are wholly impotent, 
so far as discouraging the man is concerned, provided 
the worker sees by the records of a true measuring 
device, or method, that his work compares favorably 
with others of the same experience, made under the 
same conditions. 

Definition of Programme. — The word " pro- 
gramme " is defined by the Century Dictionary as 
" a method oi operation or line of procedure prepared 
or announced beforehand. An outline or abstract of 
something to be done or carried out." 

Two Meanings of "Programme" in Management. — 
The word " programme " has two meanings in man- 
agement. 

i. the work, as it comes to the management to be 
done 

2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, 
and handed over to the worker to be done. 

Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, 
the plan which the planning department lays out and 
hands over for the performers, or the workers, to do. 

Under Traditional Management No Accurate Pro- 
gramme Is Possible. — Under Traditional Manage- 
ment the plan is at best a repetition of records of un- 
scientifically planned work. The most that the man- 
agers can hope to do is to lay out the time in which 
they expect, after consulting previous elapsed time 
records, the work to be done. Methods are not 
prescribed, so there is no assurance that the calendar 
will be followed, for the times are set by guess, 
or at best by referring to old unscientifically made 
records. 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 193 

Under Transitory Management Calendars Can Be 
Designed. — Under Transitory Management, with the 
introduction of systems, that is, records of how the 
work has been done best at various times, come meth- 
ods and a possibility of a more exact calendar. There 
is some likelihood under Transitory System of the 
work being done on time, as the method has been 
considered and, in many cases, is specified. 

Under Scientific Management Accurate Calendars 
Possible. — Under Scientific Management pro- 
grammes are based on accurate records scientifically 
made and standardized, and a calendar may be made 
that can be conformed to with exactness. 

Programmes a Matter of Routing. — The problems 
of a programme under Scientific Management are 
two, both problems of routing: 

1. to route materials to the work place. 

2. to route the worker to the placed materials. 
At first glance it might seem simpler to consider 

the worker as static and the materials as in motion. 
The " routing " of the worker is really often not a 
question of motion at all, as the worker, if he were 
operating a machine, for example, would not change 
his position between various pieces of work — except 
to rest from fatigue — enough to be considered. The 
word " routing " is used figuratively as regards the 
worker. He is considered as transported by the man- 
agement through the day's work. 

But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, 
programmes must so plan out the progress of each, 
in detail, for as many days ahead as possible, that the 
most efficient outcome will ensue. 



i 94 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Routing of Work. — The work is routed through 
schedules of materials to buy, schedules of material 
to handle, and schedules of labor to be performed. 
The skilled worker finds all the materials for his work 
ready and waiting for him when he arrives at the task, 
this being provided for by programmes made out 
many tasks ahead. 

Routing of Workers. — The workers themselves 
are routed by means of the route sheet, route chart, 
pin plan and bulletin board. 

The devices for laying out the work of the workers 
appeal to the imagination as well as the reason. The 
route chart is a graphical representation of a large 
river, starting with the small stream, — the first opera- 
tion, gathering to itself as the tributaries, the various 
other operations, — till it reaches its full growth, the 
completed work. 

The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a 
worker, or work place, and following his progress on 
a plan of the work, presents a bird's-eye view in 
miniature of the entire working force ; and the bulletin 
board, with its cards that represent work ahead, not 
only eliminates actual delay of shifting from one task 
to another, but permits studying out one task while 
doing another, and also destroys all fear of delay 
between jobs. 

Impossibility of Describing Routing Devices Ac- 
curately. — These routing devices might all be de- 
scribed at length, but no description could do them 
justice. A visit to a shop, or factory, or other in- 
dustrial organization operating under Scientific Man- 
agement is necessary, in order to appreciate not only 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 195 

their utility, but the interest that they arouse. These 
programmes are no dead, static things. They are alive, 
pulsing, moving, progressing with the progress of 
the work. 

Prophecy Becomes Possible Under Scientific Man- 
agement.— The calendar, or chronological chart, be- 
comes a true prophecy of what will take place. This 
is based on the standardized elementary units, and 
the variations from it will be so slight as to allow of 
being disregarded. 

SUMMARY 

Results of Programme to the Work. — Under Tra- 
ditional Management the tentative calendar might 
cause speed, but could not direct speed. Under 
Transitory Management elimination of waste by 
prescribed methods and routing increases output. 
This increase becomes greater under Scientific Man- 
agement. Standardized routing designs the shortest 
paths, the least wasteful sequence of events, the most 
efficient speed, the most fitting method. The result 
is more and better work. 

Results of Programmes to the Worker. — A pro- 
gramme clarifies the mind, is definite. The Traditional 
worker was often not sure what he had better do next. 
The worker under Scientific Management knows ex- 
actly what he is to do, and where and how he is to 
do it. 

The attention is held, a field of allied interests are 
provided for possible lapses, as are also methods for 
recalling attention. 

The programme provides for a look ahead, and the 



i 9 6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

relief that comes from seeing the path before one. 
This ability to foresee also leads to a feeling of 
stability. The knowledge that there is a large 
amount of work ahead, ready to be attacked with no 
delay, eliminates anxiety as to future employment. 
This allows of concentration on the work in hand, and 
a feeling that, this work being properly done, one is 
free to turn to the next piece of work with the ab- 
solute assurance that what has been done will be 
satisfactory. 

Relation Between Records and Programmes. — No 
discussion of records and programmes would be com- 
plete that did not consider the relation between them. 

Importance of This Relation. — The relation be- 
tween records and programmes in the various types of 
management is most important, for the progress from 
one type to another may be studied as exemplified in 
the change in these relations. 

A Broadening of the Definitions. — In order to un- 
derstand more plainly the complexity of this relation, 
we will not confine ourselves here to the narrower 
definition of a record as a written account, but will 
consider it to mean a registering of an experience in 
the mind, whether this expresses itself in a written 
record or not. A programme will, likewise, be a men- 
tal plan. 

Many Possible Types of Records and Pro- 
grammes. — In order to understand the number of 
different types of records and programmes that can be 
made for a worker, the table that follows may be ex- 
amined (Table I). It exemplifies twelve possible 
records and twelve possible programmes. 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 



197 



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03 - 


03 - 


03 . 


a" 


a" 


a* 


a* 


*~ v *•% 


*-* ^-N *-^ *** 


*-* .^ 


03 A 


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03 A 


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ig8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Interrelation of These Types. — The man is classi- 
fied first, as working for himself, or working for an- 
other. There will usually be a fundamental differ- 
ence, at the outset, in the minds of these two men, for 
the man working for himself will be of a more inde- 
pendent cast of thought. There will be no question 
as to the man's output showing up separately, unless 
he chooses to prevent this by having others work 
with him. Neither will there be any question but 
that, if a record is made, he makes it himself, unless 
someone who is not vitally connected with the work, 
as some onlooker, interested or disinterested, should 
make the records for him. But the typical case of 
the man working for himself would be that he was 
working as an individual, and that the record was 
made by himself. There would then be four kinds of 
records — an unconscious record, a conscious record 
not written, a written record and a standardized rec- 
ord. The " unconscious record " would be, in reality, 
no record at all. It would simply be, that some- 
where in the man's mind there would be a record of 
what he had done, which, except as a " fringe of con- 
sciousness " would not particularly influence his pro- 
gramme. What we mean by a " conscious record " 
would be more of a set habit, the man knowing that 
he had done the work in a certain way. This would 
begin to influence, more or less, his programme, and 
also his knowledge of his capacity for work. With a 
written record, would come a thorough knowledge 
on his part of what he had done and how he had done 
it, and we must note that with this written record 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 199 

comes the possibility for some sort of a set pro- 
gramme, the man knowing what it will be possible to 
do, and how he had best do it. With the standardized 
record comes the standardized method. 

Relationships Complex. — When we consider the 
man working for another, he may either be one of 
a gang, or one whose work is considered as that of 
an individual. In either case, any of the four sorts 
of records can be made of his work that have been 
already described for the man working for himself. 
Each one of these records may be made by the man, 
or by the management; for with the man working 
for another, naturally the second mind, that of the 
other, or the manager, enters in, and a great many 
more combinations are possible. 

For example, — there might be an unconscious 
record made by the man and a conscious record, or 
a written record, made by the manager. There might 
be a conscious record made by the man, but an un- 
conscious or a written record made by the manager, 
etc. There are too many combinations made to be 
here considered. Each one of these combinations 
would have a definite and a different effect, both upon 
the mind of the man, and upon the mind of the man- 
ager; and also upon their relation to each other. The 
second half of this chart is similar, but treats of pro- 
grammes, as many variables enter here. 

It may be thought that the details of the preceding 
chart and the three following charts are uninteresting, 
obvious, and show too many possible combinations. 
If this be so, then it is most necessary to include them 



200 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 



to illustrate the conditions that are passed through 
and slipped back into too often in our schools, our 
apprenticeship and in all but the best of managements. 

The outline of advancement must be known and 
recognized if the quality of teaching, efficiency, and 
management is to be graded in its right class. 

When we consider that each type of record bears 
a relation to each type of programme, the complexity 
of the problems involved become apparent. This will 
be better shown in Table II. 



I. Man working 
for himself. 



TABLE II 

i. Unconscious record, uncon- 
scious programme. 

2. Conscious record, unconscious 

programme. 

3. Unconscious record, conscious 

programme. 

4. Conscious record, conscious 

programme. 

5. Unconscious record, written 

programme. 

6. Written record, unconscious 

programme. 

7. Conscious record, written pro- 

gramme. 

8. Written record, conscious 

programme. 

9. Written record, written pro- 

gramme. 
10. Standardized record, stand- 
ardized programme. 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 201 

Illustration of This Complexity. — Table II repre- 
sents the man working for himself, with subdi- 
visions under it showing the possible relationship be- 
tween his record and his programme. We find that 
these are at least ten, reaching all the way from the 
unconscious record and unconscious programme of the 
migrating transitory laborer to the standardized rec- 
ord and the standardized programme of the manager 
who manages himself scientifically. 

Each one of these represent a distinct psychological 
stage. The progression may not be regular and 
smooth as is here given, — it may be a jump, possibly 
even from one to nine. It may, however, be a slow 
progression from one stage to another, largely to be 
determined by the type of mind that is considered, 
and the opportunities for development along scien- 
tific lines which are afforded. It is the writer's in- 
tention to discuss these at length at some other time. 
Here it is only possible to enumerate, in order to show 
the size and complexity of the problem which is here 
involved. 

The table does not indicate, as perhaps it should, 
the fact that the relationship between an unconscious 
record and an unconscious programme is slight, while 
the relation between a written programme and a 
written record is very close indeed. In Table IV this 
will be indicated. 

TABLE III 

1. One of a gang, unconscious 
record, unconscious pro- 
gramme, on part of both 
manager and man. 



202 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

II. Man work- 
ing for another. 

2. Individual output, — standard- 
ized record and programme, 
known to, or made by, both 
manager and man. 

Elimination of Waste Possible. — The third table — 
that of the man working for another man — attempts 
to do no more than indicate the first and last step of a 
long series, beginning with the man, one of a gang, an 
unconscious record, and an unconscious programme, 
on the part of both the manager and the man, down to 
the final stage of individual output, with the written 
record and programme known to both manager and 
man. It would be a most interesting problem to work 
out the various steps stretching between these two, 
and the various ways in which progression might be 
made through these steps, either taking one step after 
another slowly or making the various possible jumps 
long and short. A psychological discussion of each 
step would be of value, and certainly must in time be 
made, but this book has not the scope, nor can the 
time be devoted to such a discussion. 

If this third chart had no other purpose, it would 
be useful to suggest to the student the wide tracts 
which still remain for study and development. It 
must not be thought that any of the. steps omitted on 
this chart are not in existence. Every single pos- 
sible combination of record and programme is in ex- 
istence to-day, and must be studied by the manager of 
men. Not until these are all discovered, described, 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 203 

and standardized, the progression noted, and stand- 
ard progressions outlined, can methods of least waste 
be adopted. 

With a more thorough experimental study of the 
mind will come a possible prediction as to which 
stages the various types of mind must pass through. 
So, too, with the training of the young mind in the 
primary schools and in the methods of Scientific Man- 
agement, will come the elimination of many stages 
now necessary, and the possibility, even, that the final 
stage may be introduced at the outset, and the enor- 
mous waste of time, energy and wearing of unneces- 
sary brain paths be absolutely abolished. 

The Programme Derived from the Record. — Hav- 
ing considered the various records and programmes 
and their relation, we will now consider the four stages 
of the record, — (1) unconscious, (2) conscious, (3) 
written, (4) standardized, and trace the derivation 
of the programme from each stage. 

TABLE IV 

I. Record unconscious. Programme cannot be defi- 
nite. 
Method is indefinite. 

II. Record conscious. Programme becomes more 

definite. 
Method becomes more 
definite. 

III. Record written. Programme yet more defi- 

nite. 
Method definite. 



204 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

IV. Record standardized. Programme standardized, 

i. e., 
Results predictable. 
Methods standard. 

Unconscious Records Mean Indefinite Pro- 
grammes. — First, then, suppose that the records are 
unconscious. What does this imply? It implies in the 
first place that the worker has no idea of his capacity; 
never having thought of what he has done, he has no 
idea what can be done, neither has he a comparative 
idea of methods, that is, of how to do it. It is impos- 
sible for a definite programme to be laid out by such a 
worker, — that is to say, no predictions by him as to 
the time of completing the work are possible. 
Neither could a method be derived by him from his 
previous work. 

Note here the alarming amount of waste. All good 
methods which the worker may possibly have acquired 
are practically lost to the world, and perhaps also 
to him. Not only this, but all bad methods which he 
has fallen into will be fallen into again and again, as 
there are no warning signs to keep him out of 
them. 

As there is no possibility of an accurate chrono- 
logical chart, the worker may undertake more than 
he can do, thus delaying work which should have been 
done by others. On the other hand, he may under- 
estimate his capacity, and be left idle because work 
he should have done has been assigned to others. 
Either of these leads to a sense of insecurity, to waver- 
ing attention, to " hit or miss " guess work, " rule-of- 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 205 

thumb methods," which are the signs of Traditional 
Management. 

With Conscious and Written Records Come Def- 
inite Programmes. — We turn now to the case where 
the record is conscious, — that is, where the worker 
keeps in mind exactly what he has done. With this 
conscious record the idea of capacity develops. The 
man realizes what he can do. So also, the idea of 
method develops, and the man realizes how he can 
do the work. Third, there comes gradually an idea 
of a margin; that is, of a possible way by which ca- 
pacity can be increased for a higher speed, or meth- 
ods can be slightly varied to meet any particular 
deviation in the work to be done. 

From this ability to estimate capacity, and to plan 
the method ahead, comes the ability to lay out a more 
definite programme. When the record becomes 
written the exactness of the programme increases. 
Methods also become written, and, though accurate 
prediction is not possible, such prediction is more and 
more nearly approached. This increasing accuracy 
is the work of Transitory System in all its stages. 

Standard Records Permit of Standard Pro- 
grammes. — In the last case, the record is standard- 
ized, that is, the result of the method of processes of 
analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has 
been shown, the reason for success is discovered and 
rendered usable. The programme becomes stand- 
ard, results can be predicted accurately, and methods 
by which these results can be best obtained are also 
standard. 

It may at first escape notice that these standardized 



2o5 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

records, of the ultimate or scientific management type, 
imply not a greater rigidity, but a greater elasticity. 
This because of the nature of the elements of the 
records, which may, in time, be combined into a great 
number of different, predictable programmes. 

SUMMARY 

Results of Relations Between Records and Pro- 
grammes on the Work. — The most noteworthy result 
of the closer relations between records and pro- 
grammes which appear during the evolution of Scien- 
tific Management is the fact that they cause constant 
simplification. The more carefully records are stand- 
ardized, the simpler becomes the drafting of the pro- 
gramme. As more and more records become stand- 
ard, the drafting of programmes becomes constantly 
an easier and cheaper process. 

Programmes Become Records. — Under Traditional 
Management the record that follows a programme 
may appear very different from the programme. 
Under Scientific Management the record that follows 
a programme most closely resembles the programme. 
Improvements are not made between the programme 
and the following record, — they find their place be- 
tween the record and the following programme. 
Thus programmes and records may be grouped in 
pairs, by similarity, with a likelihood of difference be- 
tween any one pair (one programme plus one record) 
and other pairs. 

Result on the Worker. — The greatest effect, on the 
worker, of these relations of record to programme 
under Scientific Management is the confidence that he 



RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 207 

gains in the judgment that is an outcome of Scientific 
Management. When the worker sees that Scientific 
Management makes possible accurate predictions of 
times, schedules, tasks, and performance; that the 
methods prescribed invariably enable him to achieve 
prescribed results, his confidence in Scientific Manage- 
ment grows. So also does the manager's confidence 
in Scientific Management grow, — and in this mutual 
confidence in the system of management is another 
bond of sympathy. 

The place left for suggestions and improvements, in 
the ever-present opportunities to better standards, ful- 
fills that longing for a greater efficiency that is the 
cause of progress. 



CHAPTER VIII 
TEACHING 

Definition of Teaching. — The Century Dictionary 
defines " teaching " as " the act or business of in- 
structing," with synonyms : " training " and " educa- 
tion;" and "to teach" is defined: — 

r. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, 
instruct, explain;" 

2. " to show how (to do something) ; hence, to 

train ; " 

3. " to impart knowledge or practical skill to; " " to 

guide in learning, educate." 

" Educate," we find meaning " to instruct, to teach 
methodically, to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and 
by " indoctrinate " is meant " to cause to hold as a 
doctrine or belief." " To educate," says the same 
authority, " is to develop mentally or morally by in- 
struction; to qualify by instruction and training for 
the business and duty of life." 

Under Traditional Management No Definite Plan 
of Teaching. — Under Traditional Management there 
is either no definite scheme of teaching by the man- 
agement itself, or practically none; at least, this is 
usually the condition under the most elementary 
types of Traditional Management. In the very high- 
est examples of the traditional plan the learner may 

208 



TEACHING 209 

be shown how, but this showing is not usually done 
in a systematic way, and under so-called Traditional 
Management is seldom in the form of written in- 
structions. 

No Specified Time for or Source of the Teaching. — 
Under Traditional Management there is no particular 
time in which this teaching goes on, no particular 
time allowed for the worker to ask for the instruc- 
tion, nor is there any particular source from which 
he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, al- 
most every hindrance against his getting any more 
instruction than he absolutely must have in order 
to get the work done. The persons to whom he can 
possibly appeal for further information might dis- 
charge him for not already knowing. These per- 
sons are, if he is an apprentice, an older worker; 
if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the 
foreman, or someone over him. An important fact 
bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecun- 
iary advantage of any particular person to give this 
teaching. In the first place, if the man be a fellow- 
worker, he will want to do his own work without 
interruption, he will not want to take the time off; 
moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or 
less of a trade secret, and desires to educate no more 
people than necessary, to be as clever as he is. In 
the third place, there is no possible reward for giving 
this instruction. Of course, the worker necessarily 
improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has 
a receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must 
progress constantly, either by teaching himself or by 
the instruction, no matter how haphazard. 



210 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Great Variation Under Traditional Management. — 

Only discussion of teaching under this type of man- 
agement with many men who have learned under it, 
can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be found. 
But the consensus of opinion would seem to prove 
that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too 
often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for 
assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to 
his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature 
for home-study on the subject of his trade. The ex- 
perience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, dif- 
ferent from this, but surely the mental attitude of 
the journeymen who were the only teachers must 
have tended toward some such resulting attitude of 
doubt or hesitancy in the apprentice. 

Mental Attitude of the Worker-Teacher. — Under 
the old plan of management, the apprentice must 
appear to the journeyman more or less of a sup- 
planter. From the employee's standpoint it was most 
desirable that the number of apprentices be kept 
down, as an oversupply of labor almost invariably 
resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and 
better the apprentice was taught, the sooner he be- 
came an active competitor. There seldom existed 
under this type of management many staff positions 
to which the workers could hope to be promoted, 
certainly none where they could utilize to the fullest 
extent their teaching ability. There was thus every 
reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of 
apprentices as unremunerative, irksome, and annoy- 
ing. 

Worker Not to Blame for This. — The worker is 



TEACHING 211 

not to be blamed for this attitude. The conditions 
under which he worked made it almost inevitable. 
Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a 
successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was 
appealed to constantly, and the desire of the upper 
classmen in hazing days to make the next class " pay 
up " for the hazing that they were obliged to endure 
in their Freshman year. 

Attitude of the Learner. — The attitude of the 
typical learner must frequently be one of hesitancy 
and self-distrust if not of fear, though conditions were 
so varied as almost to defy classification. One type 
of apprentice was expected to learn merely by ob- 
servation and imitation. Another was practically the 
chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach 
him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, 
but was expected to " keep busy," finding his work 
by himself. A fourth was put through a severe and 
valuable training by a martinet teacher, — and so on. 

Teaching Often Painstaking. — It is greatly to the 
credit of the worker under this type of management 
that he was, in spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a 
painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He 
insisted on application, and especially on quality of 
work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill 
to help the apprentice under him. 

Methods of Teaching Usually Wrong. — Unfor- 
tunately, through no fault of the worker-teacher the 
teaching was usually done according to wrong meth- 
ods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized 
that neither speed nor correct motions were given 
proper consideration. 



212 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Teacher Not Trained to Teach. — The reason for 
this was that the worker had no training to be a 
teacher. In the first place, he had no adequate idea 
of his own capabilities, and of which parts of his own 
method were fit to be taught. In the second place, 
he did not know that right motions must be insisted 
on first, speed next, and quality of output third; or 
in other words that if the motions were precise 
enough, the quality would be first. In the fourth 
place he had no pedagogical training. 

Lack of Standards an Underlying Lack. — All 
shortcoming in the old time teaching may be traced 
to lack of standards. The worker had never been 
measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of 
possible efficiency. No standard methods made plain 
the manner in which the work should be done. 
Moreover, no standard division and assignment of 
work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts 
of the work that quality could be given third place. 
No standard requirements had determined his fit- 
ness as a teacher, nor the specialty that he should 
teach, and no incentive held his interest to the teach- 
ing. These standards the worker-teacher could not 
provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teach- 
ing was of such a high character as it was. 

Very Little Teaching of Adults. — Under Tradi- 
tional Management, teaching of adults was slight, — 
there being little incentive either to teacher or to 
learner, and it being always difficult for an adult to 
change his method. 1 Moreover, it would be difficult 
for a worker using one method to persuade one using 
1 F. B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, para. 541-545. 



TEACHING 213 

another that his was the better, there being no stand- 
ard. Even if the user of the better did persuade the 
other to follow his method, the final result might be 
the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer 
method that did not appear in the better. 

Failure to Appreciate the Importance of Teach- 
ing. — An underestimation of the importance of 
teaching lay at the root of the lack of progress. 
This is so directly connected with all the other lacks 
of Traditional Management, — provision for adequate 
promotion and pay, standards, and the other under- 
lying principles of Scientific Management, especially 
the appreciation of cooperation, — that it is almost 
impossible to disentangle the reasons for it. Nor 
would it be profitable to attempt to do so here. In 
considering teaching under Scientific Management 
we shall show the influence of the appreciation of 
teaching, — and may deduce the lacks from its non- 
appreciation, from that discussion. 

Under Transitory System Teaching Becomes More 
Important. — Under Transitory Management the im- 
portance of teaching becomes at once more apparent. 
This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen 
and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the 
providing of written systems of instructions as to best 
practice. The worker has access to all the sources 
of information of Traditional Management, and has, 
besides these, in effect, unsystematically derived 
standards to direct him. 

Systems Make Instruction Always Available. — 
The use of written systems enables every worker to 
receive instruction at any time, to feel free to ask 



214 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

it, and to follow it without feeling in any way hu- 
miliated. 

The result of the teaching of these systems is a 
decided improvement in methods. If the written 
systems are used exclusively as a source of teaching, 
except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional 
Management, the improvement becomes definitely 
proportioned to the time which the man spends upon 
the studying and to the amount of receptive power 
which he naturally has. 

Incentives to Conform to System. — The worker 
has incentives to follow the systems — 

1. In that he is required to render reasons in writ- 
ing for permanent filing, for every disobedience of 
system. 

2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus 
basis, the first bonus that is given is for doing work 
in accordance with the prescribed method. 

Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not 
vary for any slight reasons, if he positively knows at 
the time that he must account for so doing, and that 
he will be considered to have " stacked his judg- 
ment " against that of the manager. Being called 
to account for deviations gives the man a feeling of 
responsibility for his act, and also makes him feel 
his close relationship with the managers. 

No Set Time for Using Systems. — There is, un- 
der this type of management, no set time for the 
study of the systems. 

Systems Inelastic. — Being written, these systems 
have all the disadvantages of anything that is written. 
That is to say, they require considerable adapt- 



TEACHING 215 

ability on the part of the man who is using them. 
He must consider his own mind, and the amount of 
time which he must put on studying; he must con- 
sider his own work, and adapting that method to his 
work while still obeying instructions. In the case 
of the system being in great detail, he can usually 
find a fairly detailed description of what he is going 
to do, and can use that. In the case of the system 
being not so complete, if his work varies, he must 
show intelligence in varying the system, and this 
intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has 
not, and knows not where to obtain. 

Waste of Time from Unstandardized Systems. — 
The time necessitated by the worker's laying out 
details of his method is taken from the total time of 
his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total 
product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the de- 
tails of his planning the next worker on the same 
kind of work must repeat the investigation. 

Later Transitional Management Emphasizes Use 
of Standards. — Later Transitional Management elim- 
inates this waste of time by standardizing meth- 
ods composed of standardized timed units, thus both 
rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details. 

Teaching Most Important Under Scientific Man- / 
agement. — Teaching is a most important element 
under Scientific Management not only because it in- 
creases industrial efficiency, but also because it fos- 
ters industrial peace. 2 

Importance Depends on Other Elements of Scien- 

2 H. K. Hathaway, Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific 
Management, Engineering Magazine, April, 191 1, p. 141. 



216 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tific Management. — As we have seen, Scientific Man- 
agement has as a basic idea the necessity of divided 
responsibility, or functionalization. This, when ac- 
companied by the interdependent bonus, creates an 
incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scien- 
tific Management divides the planning from the per- 
forming in order to centralize and standardize knowl- 
edge in the planning department, thus making all 
knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the 
disposal of all more than any could have alone. The 
importance of having this collected and standardized 
knowledge conveyed best to the worker cannot be 
overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker 
is able to increase his output, and thus insure the 
lowered costs, that provide the funds with which to 
pay his higher wages, — to increase his potential as 
well as actual efficiency, and best to cooperate with 
other workers and with the management. 

Importance of Teaching Element Best Claim to 
Permanence of Scientific Management. — Upon the 
emphasis which it places on teaching rests a large 
part of the claim of Scientific Management for per- 
manence. 3 We have already shown the derivation 
of the standards which are taught. We have shown 
that the relation between the planning and perform- 
ing departments is based largely on means and meth- 
ods for teaching. We have only to show here that 
the teaching is done in accordance with those laws 
of Psychology that are the laws of Pedagogy. 

Teaching in Scientific Management Not the Result 
of Theory Only.— -The methods of teaching under 
3 H. L. Gantt, paper 928, A. S. M. E., p. 372. 



TEACHING 217 

Scientific Management were not devised in response 
to theories of education. They are the result of 
actual experience in getting work done most success- 
fully. The teachers, the methods, the devices for 
teaching, — all these grew up to meet needs, as did 
the other elements of Scientific Management. 

Conformity of Teaching to Psychological Laws 
Proof of Worth of Scientific Management. — The fact 
that teaching under Scientific Management does con- 
form, as will be shown, to the laws of Psychology, is 
an added proof of the value of Scientific Management. 

Change from Teaching Under Traditional Manage- 
ment. — Mr. Gantt says, " The general policy of the 
past has been to drive; but the era of force must give 
way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the fu- 
ture will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage 
of all concerned." 4 This " driving" element of Tra- 
ditional Management is eliminated by Scientific Man- 
agement. 

Necessity for Personally Derived Judgment Elim- 
inated. — So also is eliminated the old belief that the 
worker must go through all possible experiences in 
order to acquire " judgment " as to best methods. 
If the worker must pass through all the stages of the 
training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seri- 
ously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the 
higher planes of knowledge afforded by training un- 
der Scientific Management, by reason of sheer lack 
of time. If, therefore, by artificial conditions caused 
by united agreement and collective bargaining, work- 
men insist upon forcing upon the new learners the 

4 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 116. 



2i8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

old-school training, they will lose just so much of the 
benefits of training under those carefully arranged 
and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial in- 
vestigation in which modern science has been suc- 
cessful. To refuse to start iii where others have left 
off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to 
use mathematical formulas because they have been 
worked out by others. It might be advocated that 
the mind would grow by working out every possible 
mathematical formula before using it, but the result 
would be that the student would be held back from 
any further original investigation. Duplicating pri- 
mary investigations might be original work for him, 
but it would be worthless as far as the world is con- 
cerned. The same is absolutely true in management. 
If the worker is held back by acquiring every bit of 
knowledge for himself instead of taking the work of 
others as the starting point, the most valuable initia- 
tive will be lost to the world. 

Bad Habits the Result of Undirected Learning.— 
Even worse than the waste of time would be the 
danger of acquiring habits of bad methods, habits of 
unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; 
habits of inattention. Any or all of these might de- 
velop. These are all prevented under Scientific Man- 
agement by the improved methods of teaching. 

Valuable Elements of Traditional Management 
Conserved. — There are, however, many valuable ele- 
ments of the old Traditional system of teaching and 
of management which should be retained and not be 
lost in the new. 

For example, — the greatest single cause of mak- 



TEACHING 219 

ing men capable under the old plan was the foreman's 
unconscious ability to make his men believe, before 
they started a task, that they could achieve it. 

It must not be thought that because of the aids 
to the teacher under Scientific Management the old 
thought of personality is lost. The old ability to 
convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, 
to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with 
confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by 
no means lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved 
under Scientific Management. 

Teaching of Transitory Management Supple- 
mented. — In the transforming of Transitory into 
Scientific Management, we note that the process is 
one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written 
system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of 
Transitory Management, is somewhat limited in its 
scope, but its usefulness is by no means impaired. 

Scope of Teaching Under Scientific Manage- 
ment. — Under Scientific Management teaching must 
cover 

1. Teaching of right methods of doing work, 

2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right 
methods. 

The teacher must so impart the knowledge that 
judgment can be acquired without the learner being 
obliged himself to experience all the elements of the 
judgment. 

Needs for Teaching Under Scientific Manage- 
ment. — The needs for this teaching have been stated, 
but may be recapitulated here. 

1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes. 



If the worker chooses 
to use them. 



220 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

2. Worker has no opportunity under the old indus- 
trial conditions to standardize his own methods. 

3. Worker must know standard practice. 

4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching. 

5. Right habits can be instilled. 

( Sources of Teaching Under Scientific Manage- 
ment. — The sources of teaching under Scientific 
Management are 

1. Friends or Relatives 

2. Fellow workers 

3. Literature of the Trade 

4. Night schools and study 

5. The Management. 

Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Manage- 
ment. — The Methods of Teaching under Scientific 
Management are 

1. Written, by means of 

(a) Instruction Cards telling what is to be done 
and how. 

(b) Systems, explaining the why. 

(c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illus- 
trating methods. 

(d) Records made by the worker himself. 

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen. 

3. Object-lessons: 

(a) Exhibits. 

(b) Working models. 

(c) Demonstrations by the Teacher. 

(d) Demonstrations by the worker under Super- 
vision. 

Worker a Source of These Methods. — It should be 
often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all meth- 



TEACHING 221 

ods are derived from a study of workers, and that the 
worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when 
he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that 
the teachers are a means of presenting to him the 
underlying principles of his own experience, will the 
worker be able to cooperate with all his energy. 

Instruction Cards Are Directions. — Instruction 
Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, 
giving, in most concise form, closely defined descrip- 
tion of standard practice and directions as to how 
each element of the standardized task is to be per- 
formed. The makers know that they must make 
their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive 
constantly for clearness. 

Instruction Cards Teach Directly and Indirectly. — 
These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker 
directly best to do his work, but also teach him in- 
directly how to become a leader, demonstrator, 
teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may 
lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and 
to preparation for becoming one of the planning de- 
partment. The excellent method of attack of the 
Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good ef- 
fect, even upon such workers as do not consciously 
note it. 5 

Systems Are Reasons and Explanations. — " Sys- 
tems " or standing orders are collections of detailed 
reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions em- 
bodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards. 
There is a system showing the standard practice of 
each kind of work. 

5 H. L. Gantt, paper 928, A. S. M. E., p. 342. 



222 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

They Enlist the Judgment of the Worker. — Un- 
der really successful management, it is realized that 
the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that, unless 
this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his 
curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. 
Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his 
judgment will never reenforce his work. He may 
conform to the method absolutely, but his work will 
not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why 
he is made to work in the particular manner pre- 
scribed. This giving of the " why " to the worker 
through the system, and thus allowing his reason to 
follow through all the details, and his judgment to 
conform absolutely, should silence the objections of 
those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, 
and that he has no incentive to think at his work. 
On the contrary, it will be seen that this method 
furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he 
can consider his work. 

Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs Means 
of Making Directions Clearer. — The Instruction 
Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans 
and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs, — 
any or all, — in order to make the directions of the 
Instruction Cards plainer. 

Stereoscopic and Micro-Motion Study Photographs 
Particularly Useful. — Stereoscopic photographs are 
especially useful in helping non-visualizers, and in 
presenting absolutely new work. The value as an 
educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro- 
motion photographs of right methods is as yet but 
faintly appreciated. 



TEACHING 223 

The " timed motion picture," or " micro-motion 
study photograph " as it is called, consists of 
rapidly photographing workers in action accompanied 
by a specially constructed chronometer that shows 
such minute divisions of time that motion pictures 
taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of 
human motions without a blur, will show a different 
time of day in each photograph. The difference in 
the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of 
the desired motion operation or time unit. 

Self-Made Records Educative. — The educative 
value of the worker's making his own records has 
never been sufficiently appreciated. Dr. Taylor in- 
sists upon this procedure wherever possible. 6 Not 
only does the worker learn from the actual marking 
in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns 
to feel himself a part of the record making division 
of the management. This proof of the " square deal," 
in recording his output, and of the confidence in him, 
cannot fail to enlist his cooperation. 

Oral Instruction Comes from the Functional Fore- 
men. — The Functional Foremen are teachers whose 
business it is to explain, translate and supplement 
the various written instructions when the worker 
either does not understand them, does not know how 
to follow them, or makes a mistake in following them. 

Oral Instruction Has Its Fitting Place Under 
Scientific Management. — Oral instruction under 
Scientific Management has at least four advantages 
over such instruction under Traditional Management. 

6 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 289, Harper Ed., pp. 
127-128. 



224 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

i. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction. 

2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction. 

3. The instruction is a supplement to written in- 
structions. 

4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the 
learner needs it. 

Teacher, or Functional Foreman, Should Under- 
stand Psychology and Pedagogy. — The successful 
teacher must understand the minds of his men, and 
must be able to present his information in such a way 
that it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of 
psychology and pedagogy as he possesses he may 
acquire almost unconsciously 

1. from the teaching of others, 

2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Sys- 
tems, 

3. from actual practice in teaching. 

The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as 
it applies to the field of teaching in general, and of 
teaching in the industries in particular, are apparent. 
Such study must, in the future, become more and 
more prevalent. 

Advantage o£ Functional Foreman-Teacher Over 
Teacher in the Schools. — The Functional Foreman- 
teacher has an advantage over the teacher in the 
school in that the gap between him and those he 
teaches is not so great. He knows, because he re- 
members, exactly how the worker must have his in- 
formation presented to him. This gap is narrowed 
by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it 
merely as a supplement to the written teaching, and 
by supplementing it with object-lessons. 



TEACHING 225 

Teacher Must Have Practical Knowledge of the 
Trade He Is to Teach. — The teacher must have an 
intimate practical knowledge of the art or trade that 
he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of 
Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery 
of the trade, as a condition precedent to turning out 
the best craftsmen. This is provided for by secur- 
ing teachers from the ranks of the workers. 7 

He Must Have a Thorough Knowledge of the 
Standards. — He must have more than the traditional 
knowledge of the trade that he is to teach; he must 
have also the knowledge that comes only from scien- 
tific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is 
ready and at hand, in the standards of Scientific Man- 
agement that are available to all for study. 

He Must Be Convinced of the Value of the Meth- 
ods He Teaches. — The teacher must also have an 
intimate acquaintance with the records of output of 
the method he is to teach as compared with those of 
methods held in high esteem by the believer in the 
old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be 
efficient in teaching any method in which he does not 
believe, any more than a salesman can do his best 
work when he does not implicitly believe in the goods 
that he is selling. 

He Must Be an Enthusiast. — The best teacher is 
the one who is an enthusiast on the subject of the 
work itself, who can cause contagion or imitation of 
his state of mind, by love of the problems themselves. 

Such Enthusiasm Contagious. — It is the contagion 
of this enthusiasm that will always create a demand 

7 H. K. Hathaway, Engineering Magazine, April, 191 1, p. 144. 



226 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

for teachers, no matter how perfect instruction cards 
may become. There is no form or device of man- 
agement that does away with good men, and in the 
teacher, as here described, is conserved the per- 
sonal element of the successful, popular Traditional 
foreman. 

Valuable Teacher Interests Men in the Economic 
Value of Scientific Management. — The most valuable 
teacher is one who can arouse his pupils to such a 
state of interest in the economic values of the meth- 
ods of Scientific Management, that all other objects 
that would ordinarily distract or hold their attention 
will be banished from their minds. They will then 
remember each step as it is introduced, and they will 
be consumed with interest and curiosity to know what 
further steps can be introduced, that will still fur- 
ther eliminate waste. 

Object-lesson May Be "Working Models."— The 
object-lesson may be a " fixed exhibit " or a " work- 
ing model," " a process in different stages," or 
" a micro-motion study film " of the work that 
is to be done. Successful and economical teach- 
ing may be done with such models, which are 
especially valuable where the workers do not speak 
the same language as the teacher, where many 
workers are to perform exactly similar work, or 
where the memory, the visualizing and the construc- 
tive imagination, are so poor that the models must 
be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal 
best to those who take in information easiest through 
the eyes. 

Object-lessons May Be Demonstrations by the 



TEACHING 227 

Teacher. — The teacher may demonstrate the method 
manually to the worker, or by means of films show- 
ing synthesized right methods on the motion-picture 
screen. This s also, is a successful method of teach- 
ing those who speak a different language, or of ex- 
plaining new work, — though it calls for a better 
memory than does the " working model." The 
model, however, shows desired results; the demon- 
stration, desired methods. 

Demonstration Method Chief Method of Teaching 
by Foremen. — The manual demonstration method is 
the chief method of teaching the workmen by the 
foremen under Scientific Management, and no method 
is rated as standard that cannot be successfully 
demonstrated by the teacher, at any time, on re- 
quest. 

Worker may Demonstrate Under Supervision. — 
If the worker is of that type that can learn only by 
actually doing the work himself, he is allowed to 
demonstrate the method under supervision of the 
teacher. 8 

Teaching Always Available Under Scientific Man- 
agement. — Under Scientific Management all of these 
forms of teaching are available constantly. The in- 
struction card and accompanying illustrations are 
given to the worker before he starts to work, and 
are so placed that he can consult them easily at any 
time during the work. As, also, if object-lessons 
are used, they are given before work commences, and 
repeated when necessary. 

8 W. D. Ennis, An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial En- 
gineering, June, 191 1, p. 462. 



228 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

The teacher is constantly available for oral in- 
struction, and the systems are constantly available 
for consultation. 

Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Manage- 
ment Psychologically Right. — In order to prove that 
teaching under Scientific Management is most valu- 
able, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically 
right, that it leads to mental development and im- 
provement. Under Scientific Management, teach- 
ing— 

i. uses and trains the senses. 

2. induces good habits of thinking and acting. 

3. stimulates attention. 

4. provides for valuable associations. 

5. assists and strengthens the memory. 

6. develops the imagination. 

7. develops judgment. 

8. utilizes suggestion. 

9. utilizes " native reactions." 
10. develops the will. 

Teaching Under Scientific Management Trains the 
Senses. — Scientific Management, in teaching the 
man, aims to train all of his senses possible. Not 
only does each man show an aptitude for some spe- 
cial sense training, 9 but at certain times one sense 
may be stronger than another; for example, the 
sense of hearing, as is illustrated by the saying, 
" The patient in the hospital knoweth when his doc- 
tor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he 
recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the 

9 C S. Myers, M.D., An Introduction to Experimental Psychol- 
ogy, chap. V, p. 73. 



TEACHING 229 

time that a certain thing becomes of interest, and be- 
comes particularly interesting to one sense, that 
sense is particularly keen and developed. 

Scientific Management cannot expect, without 
more detailed psychological data than is as yet avail- 
able, to utilize these periods of sense predominance 
adequately. It can, and does, aim to utilize such 
senses as are trained, and to supply defects of train- 
ing of the other senses. 

Such Training Partially Determines the Quality of 
the Work. — The importance of sense training can 
scarcely be overestimated. Through his senses, the 
worker takes in the directions as to what he is to do, 
and on the accuracy with which his senses record the 
impressions made upon them, depends the mental 
model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy 
of his criticism of the resulting physical object of his 
work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own 
task, and inspects his work. 

Sense Training Influences Increase of Efficiency. — 
With the training of the senses the possibility of in- 
creased efficiency increases. As any sense becomes 
trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more 
accurate impressions become possible. 10 They lead 
to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for 
judgment. The bricklayer develops a fineness of 
touch that allows him to dispense with sight in some 
parts of his work. 

Selective Power of Senses Developed. — James de- 
fines the sense organs as " organs of selection." ll 

10 G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 125. 

11 William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 171. 



230 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Scientific Management so trains them that they can 
select what is of most value to the worker. 

Methods of Sense Training Under Scientific Man- 
agement. — The senses are trained under Scientific 
Management by means of the various sources of 
teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed de- 
scriptions of operations, and its accompanying illus- 
trations, not only tends to increase powers of visuali- 
zation, but also, by the close observation it demands, 
it reduces the minimum visible. The " visible in- 
struction card," or working model, is an example of 
supplementing weak power of visualization. The 
most available simple, inexpensive and easily handled 
device to assist visualizing is the stereo or three-di- 
mension photograph, which not only serves its pur- 
pose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see 
the third dimension always. 

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Man- 
agement by the constant insistence on inspection. 
This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but 
is the constant practice of worker and foremen, in 
order that work may be of such a quality as will 
merit a bonus. 

Senses That Are Most Utilized Best Trained.— 
The relative training given to the various senses de- 
pends on the nature of the work. When the ear is 
the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer 
watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on 
training the hearing. In work where touch is impor- 
tant, emphasis is on such training as will develop that 
sense. 12 

12 F. B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, chap. I, Training of Ap- 
prentices, 



TEACHING 231 

Variations in Sense Power Should Be Utilized. — 
Investigations are constantly going to prove that 
each sense has a predominance at a different time in 
the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Monte s- 
sori's experience with teaching very young children 
by touch shows that that sense is able to discriminate 
to an extraordinary extent for the first six years of 
life. 13 

So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason 
of age or experience should be conserved. 14 Such 
acuteness is often the result of some need, and, un- 
less consciously preserved, will vanish with the need. 

Progress in Such Training. — The elementary sense 
experiences are defined and described by Calkins. 15 
Only through a psychological study can one realize 
the numerous elements and the possibility of study. 
As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses 
many opportunities for training and utilizing the 
senses. But the standardizing of elements, and the 
realization of the importance of more and more in- 
tensive study of the elements lends assurance that 
ultimately all possibilities will be utilized. 

As Many Senses as Possible Appealed To. — Scien- 
tific Management has made great progress in appeal- 
ing to as many senses as possible in its teaching. 
The importance of the relation between the senses 
is brought out by Prof. Stratton. 16 

In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its 

13 McClure's Magazine, May, 191 1, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912. 

14 As a woodman's keenness of hearing. 

15 M. W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, chap. III. 

16 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, chap. VII. 



232 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

teachers, animate and inanimate, great possibilities 
of appealing to many senses simultaneously. The in- 
struction card may be 

i. read to oneself silently — eyes appealed to 

2. read to oneself aloud — eyes and ears appealed 
to, also muscles used trained to repeat 

3. read aloud to one — ears 

4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one, — 
eyes and ears 

5. read aloud, and at the same time copied — eyes, 
ears, muscles of mouth, muscles of hand 

6. read to one, while process described is demon- 
strated 

7. read to one while process is performed by one- 
self 

There are only a few of the possible combinations, 
any of which are used, as best suits the worker and 
the work. 17 

Untrained Worker Requires Appeal to Most 
Senses. — The value of appeal to many senses is best 
realized in teaching an inexperienced worker. His 
senses help to remind him what to do, and to " check 
up " his results. 

At Times Appeal to But One Sense Preferable. — 
In the case of work that must be watched constantly, 
and that involves continuous processes, it may prove 
best to have directions read to the worker. So also, 
the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to ad- 
vantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member 
of a group of members to rest, or to observe, while di- 
rections are taken in through the ears only. In this 
17 Compare with an actor's learning a part. 



TEACHING 233 

way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the 
work is not halted. 

At Times One Sense Is Best Not Utilized. — At 
times teaching may well omit one sense in its appeal, 
because that sense will tend to confuse the learning, 
and will, when the method is learned, be otherwise 
utilized than it could be during the learning process. 
In teaching the " touch system " of typewriting, 18 the 
position of the keys is quickly remembered by hav- 
ing the key named aloud and at the same time struck 
with the assigned finger, the eyes being blindfolded. 
Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and 
finger muscles, but not sight. 

Importance of Fatigue Recognized. — A large part 
of the success of sense appeal and sense training of 
Scientific Management is in the appreciation of the 
importance of fatigue. This was early recognized by 
Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from 
all those interested in Scientific Management. 

Psychology Already Aiding the Industries in Such 
Study. — Study of the Psychological Review will 
demonstrate the deep and increasing interest of psy- 
chologists in the subject of fatigue. The importance 
of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by 
Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, 
France, is great. 19 Not only are the results of his 
investigations commercially valuable, but also they are 
valuable as indicating the close connection between 
Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. 

18 As proved by experimenting with a six-year-old child. 

19 Imbert, Etudes experirnentales de travail professionnel 
ouvrier, Sur la fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides. 



234 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Importance of Habits. 20 — Prof. William James says 
" an acquired habit, from the psychological point of 
view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge 
formed in the brain, by which certain incoming cur- 
rents ever after tend to escape." 

And again, — " First, habit simplifies our move- 
ments, makes them accurate, and diminishes fa- 
tigue," 21 and habit diminishes the conscious attention 
with which our acts are performed. Again he says, 
page 144, " The great thing, then, in all education, is 
to make our nervous system our ally instead of an 
enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, 
and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For 
this we must make automatic and habitual, as early 
as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and 
guard against the growing into ways that are likely 
to be disadvantageous to us, as we should guard 
against the plague." 

These quotations demonstrate the importance of 
habit. 

How deep these paths of discharge are, is illus- 
trated by the fact that often a German, having spent 
the early years of his school life in Germany, will, 
even after learning to speak, read, write and think in 
English, find it difficult to figure in anything but 
German. 

Habit Easily Becomes the Master. — Another illus- 
tration of the power of habit is exhibited by the brick- 
layer, who has been trained under old-time methods, 

20 William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 134. 

21 Ibid., p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course. 
p. H3. 



TEACHING 235 

and who attempts to follow the packet method. The 
standard motions for picking up the upper row of 
bricks from the packet are entirely different from 
those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers 
were taught this, yet invariably used the old-time mo- 
tions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste 
involved. 22 

Wrong Preconceived Ideas Hamper Develop- 
ment. — Wrong habits or ideas often retard develop- 
ment. For example, it took centuries for artists to 
see the colors of shadows correctly, because they 
were sure that such shadows were a darker tone of 
the color itself. 23 

Teaching Under Scientific Management Results in 
Good Habits. — The aim of teaching under Scien- 
tific Management, as has been said, is to create good 
habits of thinking and good habits of doing. 

Standards Lead to Right Methods of Thinking and 
Acting. — The standards of Scientific Management, 
as presented to the worker in the instruction card, 
lead to good habits, in that they present the best 
known method of doing the work. They thus aid 
the beginner, in that he need waste no time search- 
ing for right methods, but can acquire right habits 
at once. They aid the worker trained under an older, 
supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war 
against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. 
Old motor images, which tend to cause motions, are 
overcome by standard images, which suggest, and 
pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous re- 

22 F. B. Gilbrelh, Bricklaying System, p. 142. 

23 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 214. 



236 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

curring of images under the old method is the 
familiar cause of inattention and being unable to get 
down to business, and the real cause of the expression, 
" You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other 
hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the 
standard method is the cause of greater speed of 
movement of the experienced man, and these images 
of the standard methods do recur often enough to 
drive down the old images and to enable all men 
who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what 
they are doing. 

Through Standards Bad Habits Are Quickest 
Broken. — Through the standards the bad habit is 
broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit. 
This is at once practiced, is practiced without excep- 
tion, and is continually practiced until the new habit 
is in control. 24 

Through Standards New Habits Are Quickest 
Formed. — These same standards, as presented in 
teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits, in 
that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so 
by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that 
of the teacher. 

Habits Are Instilled by Teaching. — The chief func- 
tion of the teacher during the stage that habits are 
being formed is the instilling of good habits. 

Methods of Instilling Good Habits. — This he does 
by insisting on 

i. right motions first, that is to say, — the right 
number of right motions in the right sequence. 

24 Prof. Bain, quoted in William James' Psychology, Briefer 
Course, pp. 145-147. 



TEACHING 237 

2. speed of motions second, that is to say, con- 
stantly increasing speed. 

3. constantly improving quality. 25 

This Method Is Contrary to Most Old-time Prac- 
tice. — Under most old-time practice the quality of 
the work was the first consideration, the quantity of 
work the second, and the methods of achieving the 
results the third. 

Results of Old-time Practice. — As a result, the me- 
chanical reactions, which were expected constantly to 
follow the improved habits of work, were constantly 
hindered by an involuntary impulse of the muscles to 
follow the old methods. Waste time and low output 
followed. 

Some Early Recognition of " Right Motions 
First." — The necessity of teaching the right motions 
first was early recognized by a few progressive spirits, 
as is shown in military tactics; for example, see pages 
6 and 7, " Cavalry Tactics of U. S. A." 1879, D. Apple- 
ton, also page 51. 

Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 
473. These directions not only teach the man how, 
but accustoms the horse to the sequence and location 
of motions that he may expect. 

Benefits of Teaching Right Motions First. — 
Through teaching right motions first reactions to 
stimuli gain in speed. The right habit is formed at 
the outset. With the constant insistence on these 
right habits that result from right motions, will come, 
naturally, an increase in speed, which should be fos- 
tered until the desired ultimate speed is reached. 

25 F. B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, para. 18-19. 



238 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Ultimately, Standard Quality Will Result. — The 

result of absolute insistence on right motions will be 
prescribed quality, because the standard motions pre- 
scribed were chosen because they best produced the 
desired result. 

Under Scientific Management No Loss from 
Quality During Learning. — As will be shown later, 
Scientific Management provides that there shall be 
little or no loss from the quality of the work dur- 
ing the learning period. The delay in time before 
the learner can be said to produce such work as could 
a learner taught where quality was insisted upon 
first of all, is more than compensated for by the ul- 
timate combination of speed and quality gained. 

Results of Teaching the Right Motions First Are 
Far-reaching. — There is no more important subject 
in this book on the Psychology of Management than 
this of teaching right motions first. The most im- 
portant results of Scientific Management can all, in 
the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, 
even to the underlying spirit of cooperation which, as 
we shall show in " Welfare," is one of the most im- 
portant ideas of Scientific Management. These right 
habits of Scientific Management are the cause, as well 
as the result, of progress, and the right habits, which 
have such a tremendous psychological importance, 
are the result of insisting that right motions be used 
from the very beginning of the first day. 

From Right Habits of Motion Comes Speed of 
Motions. — Concentrating the mind on the next mo- 
tion causes speed of motion. Under Scientific Man- 
agement, the underlying thought of sequence of mo- 



TEACHING 239 

tions is so presented that the worker can remember 
them, and make them in the shortest time possible. 

Response to Standards Becomes Almost Auto- 
matic. — The standard methods, being associated 
from the start with right habits of motions only, cause 
an almost automatic response. There are no dis- 
carded habits to delay response. 

Steady Nerves Result. — Oftentimes the power to 
refrain from action is quite as much a sign of educa- 
tion and training as the power to react quickly from 
a sensation. Such conduct is called, in some cases, 
" steady nerves." The forming of right habits is 
a great aid toward these steady nerves. The man 
who knows that he is taught the right way, is able 
almost automatically to resist any suggestions which 
come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man 
who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, 
in laying brick, will not be tempted to make those 
extra motions which, after all, are merely an ex- 
hibition in his hand of the vacillation that is going 
on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling 
that brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or 
not. 

Reason and Will Are Educated. — "The education 
of hand and muscle implies a corresponding training 
of reasoning and will; and the coordination of move- 
ments accompanies the coordination of thoughts." 26 

The standards of Scientific Management educate 
hand and muscle ; the education of hand and muscle 
train the mind; the mind improves the standards. 
Thus we have a continuous cycle. 

26 M. W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 354. 



2 4 o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Judgment Results with No Waste of Time. — 

Judgment is the outcome of learning the right way, 
and knowing that it is the right way. There is none 
of the lost time of " trying out " various methods 
that exists under Traditional Management. 

This power of judgment will not only enable the 
possessor to decide correctly as to the relative merits 
of different methods, but also somewhat as to the 
past history and possibilities of different workers. 

This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific 
Management in promoting from the ranks, and thus 
providing that every member of the organization 
shall, ultimately, know from experience how to esti- 
mate and judge the work of others. 

Habits of Attention Formed by Scientific Man- 
agement. — The good habits which result from teach- 
ing standard methods result in habits of attention. 
The standards aid the mind in holding a " selective 
attitude," 27 by presenting events in an orderly se- 
quence. The conditions under which the work is 
done, and the incentives for doing it, provide that the 
attention shall be " lively and prolonged." 

Prescribed Motions Afford Rhythm and iEsthetic 
Pleasure. — The prescribed motions that result from 
motion study and time study, and that are arranged 
in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the attention 
to " glide over some beats and linger on others," as 
Prof. Stratton describes it, in a different connection. 28 
So also the " perfectly controlled " movements, 
which fall under the direction of a guiding law, and 

27 James Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 119. 

28 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 99. 



TEACHING 241 

which " obey the will absolutely," 29 give an aesthetic 
pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention. 

Instruction Card Creates and Holds Attention. — 
As has been already said in describing the instruction 
card under Standardization, it was designed as a re- 
sult of investigations as to what would best secure 
output, — to attract and hold the attention. 30 Pro- 
viding, as it does, all directions that an experienced 
worker is likely to need, he can confine his attention 
solely to his work and his card; usually, after the card 
is once studied, to his work alone. The close rela- 
tion of the elements of the instruction card affords 
a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the 
new elements that are constantly made apparent. 

Oral Individual Teaching Fosters Concentrated At- 
tention. — The fact that under Scientific Management 
oral teaching is individual, not only directly concen- 
trates the attention of the learner upon what he is 
being taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction 
from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or 
embarrassment in talking before a crowd. 

The Bulletin Board Furnishes the Element of 
Change. — In order that interest or attention may be 
held, there must be provision for allied subjects on 
which the mind is to wander. This, under Scientific 
Management, is constantly furnished by the collec- 
tion of jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks 
piled up ahead upon this bulletin board provide a 
needed and ready change for the subject of attention 

29 Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 240. 

30 Attracting the attention is largely a matter of appealing to 
what is known to interest, for example, to a known ambition. 



242 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

or interest, which conserves the economic value of 
concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. 
Such future tasks furnish sufficient range of subject 
for wandering attention to rest the mind from the 
wearying effect of overconcentration or forced at- 
tention. The assigned task of the future system- 
atizes the " stream of attention," and an orderly 
scheme of habits of thought is installed. When the 
scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the mind 
is doing its best work, for, while the standardized ex- 
treme subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison 
of the ultimate unit, and groupings of units of future 
tasks are often helps in achieving the present tasks, 
without such a definite orderly scheme for shifting 
the attention and interest, the attention will shift to 
useless subjects, and the result will be scattered. 

Incentives Maintain Interest.- — The knowledge that 
a prompt reward will follow success stimulates in- 
terest. The knowledge that this reward is sure con- 
centrates attention and thus maintains interest. 

In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and 
the fact that the worker sees those of his own trade 
promoted, and knows it is to the advantage of the 
management, as well as to his advantage, that he also 
be promoted, — this also maintains interest in the 
work. 

This Interest Extends to the Work of Others. — 
The interest is extended to the work of others, not- 
only by the interrelated bonuses, but also by the fact 
that every man is expected to train up a man to take 
his place, before he is promoted. 

Close Relationship of All Parts of Scientific Man- 



TEACHING 243 

agement Holds Interest. — The attention of the en- 
tire organization, as well as of the individual worker, 
is held by Scientific Management and its teaching, 
because all parts of Scientific Management are re- 
lated, and because Scientific Management provides 
for scientifically directed progression. Every mem- 
ber of the organization knows that the standards 
which are taught by Scientific Management contain 
the permanent elements of past successes, and pro- 
vide for such development as will assure progress and 
success in the future. Every member of the or- 
ganization realizes that upon his individual coopera- 
tion depends, in part, the stability of Scientific Man- 
agement, because it is based on universal cooperation. 
This provides an intensity and a continuity of inter- 
est that would still hold, even though some particular 
element might lose its interest. 

This Relationship Also Provides for Associa- 
tions. — The close relationship of all parts of Scien- 
tific Management provides that all ideas are as- 
sociated, and are so closely connected that they can 
act as a single group, or any selected number of ele- 
ments can act as a group. 

Scientific Management Establishes Brain Groups 
That Habitually Act in Unison. — Professor Read, in 
describing the general mental principle of association 
says, " When any number of brain cells have been in 
action together, they form a habit of acting in unison, 
so that when one of them is stimulated in a certain 
Way, the others will also behave in the way estab- 
lished by the habit." 31 This working of the brain is 

31 M. S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, p. 183. 



244 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

recognized in grouping of motions, such as " playing 
for position." 32 Scientific Management provides the 
groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to 
standard methods, so that the result is largely pre- 
dictable. 

Method of Establishing Such Groups in the 
Worker's Brain. — The standard elements of Scien- 
tific Management afford units for such groups. 
Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruc- 
tion cards, would be formed, in the minds of the 
worker, such groups of units as would aid in foresee- 
ing results, just as the foreseeing of groups of moves 
aids the expert chess or checker player. The size 
and number of such groups would indicate the skill 
of the worker. 

That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific 
Management synthesizes the units into definite 
groups, and teaches these to the workers as 
groups. 

Teaching Done by Means of Motion Cycles. — The 
best group is that which completes the simplest cycle 
of performance. This enables the worker to associ- 
ate certain definite motions, to make these into 
a habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the 
cycle as a whole, and not upon the elementary mo- 
tions of which it is composed. 

For example — The cycle of the pick and dip proc- 
ess of bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel 
full of mortar simultaneously and deposit them on 
the wall simultaneously. 33 The string mortar method 

32 F. B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 83. 

33 Ibid., Bricklaying System, para. 555-557. 



TEACHING 245 

has two cycles, which are, first to pick a certain num- 
ber of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the 
wall, and then to pick up a corresponding number 
of bricks and deposit them on the wall. 34 Each cycle 
of these two methods consists of an association of 
units that can be remembered as a group. 

Such Cycles Induce Speed. — The worker who has 
been taught thus to associate the units of attention 
and action into definite rhythmic cycles, is the one 
who is most efficient, and least fatigued by a given 
output. The nerves acquire the habit, as does the 
brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus 
characterizes the efficiency of the specialist. 35 

Scientific Management Restricts Associations. — 
By its teaching of standard methods, Scientific Man- 
agement restricts association, and thus gains in the 
speed with which associated ideas arise. 36 Insistence 
on causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered 
by the Systems, which give the reasons, and make the 
standard method easy to remember. 

Scientific Management Presents Scientifically De- 
rived Knowledge to the Memory. — Industrial mem- 
ory is founded on experience, and that experience that 
is submitted by teaching under Scientific Manage- 
ment to the mind is in the form of scientifically de- 
rived standards. These furnish 

(a) data that is correct. 

(b) images that are an aid in acquiring new 
habits of forming efficient images. 

S *F. B. Gllbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 150. 

35 M. S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 179-194. 

36 G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 42. 



246 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

(c) standards of comparison, and constant de- 
mands for comparison. 

(d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning 
processes are stimulated. 

(e) conscious, efficient grouping. 

(f) logical association of ideas. 

Provision for Repetition of Important Ideas. — 
Professor Ebbinghaur says, " Associations that have 
equal reproductive power lapse the more slowly, the 
older they are, and the oftener they have been re- 
viewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Manage- 
ment provides for utilizing this law by teaching right 
motions first, and by so minutely dividing the elements 
of such motions that the smallest units discovered are 
found frequently, in similar and different operations. 

Best Periods for Memorizing Utilized. — As for 
education of the memory, there is a wide difference 
of opinion among leading psychologists in regard to 
whether or not the memorizing faculty, as the whole, 
can be improved by training; but all agree that those 
things which are specially desired to be memorized 
can be learned more easily, and more quickly, un- 
der some conditions than under others: 

For example, there is a certain time of day, for 
each person, when the memory is more efficient than 
at other times. This is usually in the morning, but 
is not always so. The period when memorizing is 
easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as possible, 
new methods and new instruction cards are passed 
out at that time when the worker is naturally best 
fitted to remember what is to be done. 

Individual Differences Respected. — It is a ques- 



TEACHING 247 

tion that varies with different conditions, whether the 
several instruction cards beyond the one he is work- 
ing on shall be given to the worker ahead of time, 
that he may use his own judgment as to when is the 
best time to learn, or whether he shall have but one 
at a time, and concentrate on that. For certain dis- 
positions, it is a great help to see a long line of work 
ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and feel- 
ing that they are more or less ahead of record. 
Others become confused if they see too much ahead, 
and would rather attack but one problem at a time. 
This fundamental difference in types of mind should 
be taken advantage of when laying out material to 
be memorized. 

Aid of Mnemonic Symbols to the Memory. — The 
mnemonic classifications furnish a place where the 
worker who remembers but little of a method or 
process can go, and recover the full knowledge of 
that which he has forgotten. Better still, they fur- 
nish him the equivalent of memory of other experi- 
ences that he has never had, and that are in such 
form that he can connect this with his memory of his 
own personal experience. 

The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic 
can associate new, scientifically derived data with his 
memory, because of the classifications of Scientific 
Management, is a most important cause of workers 
being taught quicker, and being more intelligent, 
under Scientific Management, than under any other 
type of management. 

Proper Learning Insures Proper Remembering. — 
Professor Read says, " Take care of the learning and 



248 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

the remembering will take care of itself." 37 Scien- 
tific Management both provides proper knowledge, 
and provides that this shall be utilized in such a man- 
ner that proper remembering will ensue. 

Better Habits of Remembering Result. — The re- 
sults of cultivating the memory under Scientific Man- 
agement are cumulative. Ultimately, right habits of 
remembering result that aid the worker automatically 
so to arrange his memory material as to utilize it bet- 
ter. 38 

" Imagination " Has Two Definitions. — Professor 
Read gives definitions for two distinct means of Im- 
agination. 

i. " The general function of the having of images." 

2. " The particular one of having images which are 
not consciously memories or the reproduction of the 
facts of experience as they were originally presented 
to consciousness." 39 

Scientific Management Provides Material for 
Images. — As was shown under the discussion of the 
appeals of the various teaching devices of Scientific 
Management, — provision is made for the four classes 
of imagination of Calkins 40 — 

i. visual, 

2. auditory, 

3. tactual, and 

4. mixed. 

37 M. S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, p. 208. 

38 William James, Psychology, Advanced Course, Vol. I, p. 667. 

39 M. S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 212-213. William 
James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 302. 

i0 M. W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 25. 



TEACHING 249 

It Also Realizes the Importance of Productive 
Imagination. — Scientific Management realizes that 
one of the special functions of teaching the trades is 
systematic exercising and guiding of imaginations of 
apprentices and learners. As Professor Ennis says, — 
" Any kind of planning ahead will result in some 
good," but to plan ahead most effectively it is neces- 
sary to have a well-developed power of constructive 
imagination. This consists of being able to construct 
new mental images from old memory images; of 
being able to modify and group images of past ex- 
periences, or thoughts, in combination with new 
images based on imagination, and not on experience. 
The excellence of the image arrived at in the com- 
plete work is dependent wholly upon the training in 
image forming in the past. If there has not been 
a complete economic system of forming standard 
habits of thought, the worker may have difficulty in 
controlling the trend of associations of thought 
images, and difficulty in adding entirely new images 
to the groups of experienced images, and the prob- 
lem to be thought out will suffer from wandering of 
the mind. The result will be more like a dream than 
a well balanced mental planning. It is well known 
that those apprentices, and journeymen as well, are 
the quickest to learn, and are better learners, who 
have the most vivid imagination. The best method 
of teaching the trade, therefore, is the one that also 
develops the power of imagination. 

Scientific Management Assists Productive Imagina- 
tion. — Scientific Management assists productive, or 
constructive, imagination, not only by providing 



250 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

standard units, or images, from which the results may 
be synthesized, but also, through the unity of the in- 
struction card, allows of imagination of the outcome, 
from the start. 

For example, — in performing a prescribed cycle of 
motions, the worker has his memory images grouped 
in such a figure, form, or sequence, — often geomet- 
rical, — that each motion is a part of a growing, clearly 
imagined whole. 

The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other 
entirely new cycles, and are, as provided for in the 
opportunities for invention that are a part of Scien- 
tific Management. 

Judgment the Result of Faithful Endeavor. — Judg- 
ment, or the " mental process which ends in an affirm- 
ation or negation of something," 41 comes as the result 
of experience, as is admirably expressed by Prof. 
James, — " Let no youth have any anxiety about the 
upshot of his education whatever the line of it may 
be. If he keeps faithfully busy each hour of the work- 
ing day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. 
He can with perfect certainty count on waking up 
some fine morning, to find himself one of the com- 
petent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he 
may have singled out. Silently, between all the de- 
tails of his business, the power of judging in all that 
class of matter will have built itself up within him as 
a possession that will never pass away. Young peo- 
ple should know this truth in advance. 42 The igno- 
rance of it has probably engendered more discourage- 

41 James Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 290. 

42 William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 150. 



TEACHING 251 

ment and faint-heartedness in youths embarking on 
arduous careers than all other causes put to- 
gether." 43 

Teaching Supplies This Judgment Under Scientific 
Management. — Under Scientific Management this 
judgment is the result of teaching of standards that 
are recognized as such by the learner. Thus, much 
time is eliminated, and the apprentice under Scien- 
tific Management can work with all the assurance as 
to»the value of his methods that characterized the sea- 
soned veterans of older types of management. 

Teaching Also Utilizes the Judgment. — The judg- 
ment that is supplied by Scientific Management is 
also used as a spring toward action. 44 Scientific Man- 
agement appeals to the reason, and workers perform 
work as they do because, through the Systems and 
otherwise, they are persuaded that the method they 
employ is the best. 

The Power of Suggestion Is Also Utilized. 45 — The 
dynamic power of ideas is recognized by Scientific 
Management, in that the instruction card is put in 
the form of direct commands, which, naturally, lead 
to immediate action. So, also, the teaching written, 
oral and object, as such, can be directly imitated by 
the learner. 46 

Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says " may well be 
counted a special form of suggestion," will be dis- 
cussed later in this chapter at length. 47 

43 W. D. Scott, Influencing Men in Business, chap. II. 
**Ibid., chap. III. 

45 W. D. Scott, The Theory of Advertising, p. 71. 

46 W. D. Scott, Increasing Human Efficiency in Business, p. 41. 

47 G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 200. 



252 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Worker Always Has Opportunity to Criticise the 
Suggestion. — The worker is expected to follow the 
suggestion of Scientific Management without delay, 
because he believes in the standardization on which 
it is made, and in the management that makes it. 
But the Systems afford him an opportunity of re- 
viewing the reasonableness of the suggestion at any 
time, and his constructive criticism is invited and re- 
warded. 

Suggestion Must Be Followed at the Time. — The 
suggestion must be followed at the time it is given, or 
its value as a suggestion is impaired. This is pro- 
vided for by the underlying idea of cooperation on 
which Scientific Management rests, which molds the 
mental attitude of the worker into that form where 
suggestions are quickest grasped and followed. 48 

" Native Reactions " Enumerated by Prof. James. 
— Prof. James enumerates the " native reactions " as 
(i) fear, (2) love, (3) curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) 
emulation, (6) ambition, (7) pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) 
ownership, (10) constructiveness. 49 These are all 
considered by Scientific Management. Such as might 
have a harmful effect are supplanted, others are util- 
ized. 

Fear Utilized by Ancient Managers. — The native 
reaction most utilized by the first managers of armies 
and ancient works of construction was that of fear. 
This is shown by the ancient rock carvings, which 
portray what happened to those who disobeyed. 50 

48 F. W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, p. 36. 

49 William James, Talks to Teachers, chap. III. 

so Knight's Mechanical Dictionary, Vol. Ill, p. 2204. 



TEACHING 253 

Fear Still Used by Traditional Management. — Fear 
of personal bodily injury is not usual under modern 
Traditional Management, but fear of less progress, 
less promotion, less remuneration, or of discharge, or 
of other penalties for inferior effort or efficiency is 
still prevalent. 

Fear Transformed Under Scientific Management. 
— Under Scientific Management the worker may still 
fear that he will incur a penalty, or fail to deserve a 
reward, but the honest, industrious worker experi- 
ences no such horror as the old-time fear included. 
This is removed by his knowledge 

1. that his task is achievable. 

2. that his work will not injure his health. 

3. that he may be sure of advancement with age 
and experience. 

4. that he is sure of the " square deal." 

Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil 
effect upon him. It is an incentive to cooperate will- 
ingly. Its immediate and ultimate effects are ad- 
vantageous. 

Love, or Loyalty, Fostered by Scientific Manage- 
ment. — The worker's knowledge that the manage- 
ment plans to maintain such conditions as will enable 
him to have the four assurances enumerated above 
leads to love, or loyalty, between workers and em- 
ployers. 51 

Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old 
personal and sympathetic relations between em- 
ployers and workers, it gives opportunities for such 

B1 For example, see W. D. Scott's Increasing Efficiency in Busi- 
ness, chap. IV. 



254 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

relations as have not existed since the days of the 
guilds, and the old apprenticeship. 52 

The cooperation upon which Scientific Management 
rests does away with the traditional " warfare " be- 
tween employer and workers that made permanent 
friendliness almost impossible. Cooperation induces 
friendliness and loyalty of each member in the organ- 
ization to all the others. 

Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installa- 
tion of Scientific Management in his plant, " We had, 
in effect, been installing at great expense a new and 
wonderful means for increasing the efficiency of labor, 
in the benefits of which the workman himself shared, 
and we have today an organization second, I believe, 
to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of 
purpose." 53 This same loyalty of the workers is 
plain in an article in Industrial Engineering, on " Scien- 
tific Management as Viewed from the Workman's 
Standpoint," where various men in a shop having 
Scientific Management were interviewed. 54 After 
quoting various workers' opinions of Scientific Man- 
agement and their own particular shop, the writer 
says : " Conversations with other men brought out 
practically the same facts. They are all contented. 
They took pride in their work, and seemed to be 
especially proud of the fact that they were employed 
in the Link-Belt shops." 55 

52 R. A. Bray, Boy Labor and Apprenticeship, chap. II, especially 
p. 8. 

53 Wilfred Lewis, Proceedings of the Congress of Technology, 

19", P- 175- 

54 November, 191 0. 

55 The Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



TEACHING 255 

Teaching Under Scientific Management Develops 
Such Loyalty. — The manner of teaching under Sci- 
entific Management fosters such loyalty. Only 
through friendly aid can both teacher and taught 
prosper. Also, the perfection of the actual workings 
of this plan of management inspires regard as well 
as respect for the employer. 

Value of Personality Not Eliminated. — It is a great 
mistake to think that Scientific Management under- 
estimates the value of personality. 56 Rather, Scien- 
tific Management enhances the value of an admirable 
personality. This is well exemplified in the Link- 
Belt Co., 57 and in the Tabor Manufacturing Co. of 
Philadelphia, as well as on other work where Scien- 
tific Management has been installed a period of sev- 
eral years. 

Curiosity Aroused by Scientific Management. — 
Scientific Management arouses the curiosity of the 
worker, by showing, through its teaching, glimpses 
of the possibilities that exist for further scientific 
investigation. The insistence on standard methods 
of less waste arouses a curiosity as to whether still 
less wasteful methods cannot be found. 

Curiosity Utilized by Scientific Management. — 
This curiosity is very useful as a trait of the learner, 
the planner and the investigator. It can be well util- 
ized by the teacher who recognizes it in the learner, 
by an adaptation of methods of interpreting the in- 
struction card, that will allow of partially satisfying, 

56 For value of personality see J. W. Jenks's, Governmental Action 
for Social Welfare, p. 226. 

57 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143. 



256 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

and at the same time further exciting, the curios- 
ity. 

In selecting men for higher positions, and for 
special work, curiosity as to the work, with the in- 
terest that is its result, may serve as an admirable 
indication of one sort of fitness. This curiosity, or 
general interest, is usually associated with a personal 
interest that makes it more intense, and more easy 
to utilize. 

Scientific Management Places a High Value on 
Imitation. — It was a popular custom of the past to 
look down with scorn on the individual or organiza- 
tion that imitated others. Scientific Management 
believes that to imitate with great precision the best, 
is a work of high intelligence and industrial efficiency. 

Scientific Management Uses Both Spontaneous 
and Deliberate Imitation. — Teaching under Scientific 
Management induces both spontaneous and deliber- 
ate imitation. The standardization prevalent, and the 
conformity to standards exacted, provide that this 
imitation shall follow directed lines. 

Spontaneous Imitation Under Scientific Manage- 
ment Has Valuable Results. — Under Scientific Man- 
agement, the worker will spontaneously imitate the 
teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. 
This leads to desired results. So, also, the worker 
imitates, more or less spontaneously, his own past 
methods of doing work. The right habits early 
formed by Scientific Management insure that the re- 
sults of such imitation shall be profitable. 

Deliberate Imitation Constantly Encouraged. — 
Deliberate imitation is caused more than anything 



TEACHING 257 

else by the fact that the man knows, if he does the 
thing in the way directed, his pay will be increased. 

Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that 
the worker is made to believe that he is capable, and 
has the will to overcome obstacles. He knows that 
the management believes he can do the work, or the 
instruction card would not have been issued to him. 
Moreover, he sees that the teacher and demonstrator 
is a man promoted from his rank, and he is convinced, 
therefore, that what the teacher can do he also can 
do. 58 

Scientific Management Provides Standards for 
Imitation. — It is of immense value in obtaining valu- 
able results from imitation, that Scientific Manage- 
ment provides standards. Under Traditional Man- 
agement, it was almost impossible for a worker 
to decide which man he should imitate. Even though 
he might come to determine, by constant observation, 
after a time, which man he desired to imitate, he 
would not know in how far he would do well to 
copy any particular method. Recording individually 
measured output under Transitory Management al- 
lows of determining the man of high score, and either 
using him as a model, or formulating his method into 
rules. Under Scientific Management, the instruction 
card furnishes a method which the worker knows 
that he can imitate exactly, with predetermined re- 
sults. 

58 Compare with the old darkey, who took her sons from a North- 
ern school, where the teacher was white, in order to send them to 
a Southern school having a colored teacher that they might feel, 
as they looked at him, " What that nigger can do, this nigger can 
do." 



258 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Imitation Is Expected of All. — As standardization 
applies to the work of all, so imitation of standards is 
expected of all. This fact the teacher under Scientific 
Management can use to advantage, as an added incen- 
tive to imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further 
decreased, by making clear to every worker that 
those who are under him are expected to imitate him, 
— and that he must, himself, imitate his teachers, in 
order to set a worthy example. 

Imitation Leads to Emulation. — Imitation, as pro- 
vided for by teaching under Scientific Management, 
and admiration for the skillful teacher, or the standard 
imitated, naturally stimulate emulation. This emula- 
tion takes three forms : 

1. Competition with the records of others. 

2. Competition with one's own record. 

3. Competition with the standard record. 

No Hard Feeling Aroused. — In the first sort of 
competition only is there a possibility of hard feeling 
being aroused, but danger of this is practically elimi- 
nated by the fact that rewards are provided for all who 
are successful. In the second sort of competition, 
the worker, by matching himself against what he has 
done, measures his own increased efficiency. In the 
third sort of competition, there is the added stimulus 
of surprising the management by exceeding the task 
expected. The incentive in all three cases is not 
only more pay and a chance for promotion, but also 
the opportunity to win appreciation and publicity for 
successful performance. 

Ambition Is Aroused. — The outcome of emula- 
tion is ambition. This ambition is stimulated by the 



TEACHING 259 

fact that promotion is so rapid, and so outlined be- 
fore the worker, that he sees the chance for advance- 
ment himself, and not only advancement that means 
more pay, but advancement also that means a chance 
to specialize on that work which he particularly likes. 

Pugnacity Utilized. — Pugnacity can never be en- 
tirely absent where there is emulation. Under 
Scientific Management it is used to overcome not 
persons, but things. Pugnacity is a great driving 
force. It is a wonderful thing that under Scientific 
Management this force is aroused not against one's 
fellow-workers, but against one's work. The desire 
to win out, to fight it out, is aroused against a large 
task, which the man desires to put behind him. 
Moreover, there is nothing under Scientific Manage- 
ment which forbids an athletic contest. While the 
workers would not, under the ultimate form, be al- 
lowed to injure themselves by overspeeding, a 
friendly race with a demonstration of pugnacity which 
harms no one is not frowned upon. 

Pride Is Stimulated. — Pride in one's work is 
aroused as soon as work is functionalized. The mo- 
ment a man has something to do that he likes to do, 
and can do well, he takes pride in it. So, also, the 
fact that individuality, and personality, are recog- 
nized, and that his records are shown, makes pride 
serve as a stimulus. The outcome of the worker's 
pride in his work is pride in himself. He finds that 
he is part of a great whole, and he learns to take pride 
in the entire management, — in both himself and the 
managers, as well as in his own work. 

Feeling of Ownership Provided For. — It may 



26o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

seem at first glance that the instinct of ownership is 
neglected, and becomes stunted, under Scientific 
Management, in that all tools become more or less 
standardized, and the man is discouraged from having 
tools peculiar in shape, or size, for whose use he has 
no warrant except long time of use. 

Careful consideration shows that Scientific Man- 
agement provides two opportunities for the worker 
to conserve his instinct for ownership, — 

i. During working hours, where the recognition of 
his personality allows the worker to identify himself 
with his work, and where his cooperation with the 
management makes him identified with its activities. 

2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific 
Management, more hours away from work to enjoy 
ownership, and more money with which to acquire 
those things that he desires to own. 

The teacher must make clear to him both these 
opportunities, as he readily can. since the instinct of 
ownership is conserved in him in an identical man- 
ner. 

Constructiveness a Part of Scientific Manage- 
ment. — Every act that the worker performs is con- 
structive, because waste has been eliminated, and 
everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching 
makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is 
also utilized in that exercise of initiative is provided 
for. Thus the instinct, instead of being weakened, is 
strengthened and directed. 

Progress in Utilizing Instincts Demands Psycho- 
logical Study. — Teaching under Scientific Manage- 
ment can never hope fully to understand and utilize 



TEACHING 261 

native reactions, until more assistance has been given 
by psychology. At the present time, Scientific Man- 
agement labors under disadvantages that must, ulti- 
mately, be removed. Psychologists must, by experi- 
ments, determine more accurately the reactions and 
their controlability. More thorough study must be 
made of children that Scientific Management may 
understand more of the nature of the reactions of the 
young workers who come for industrial training. 
Psychology must give its help in this training. 
Then only, can teaching under Scientific Management 
become truly efficient. 

Scientific Management Realizes the Importance of 
Training the Will. — The most necessary, and most 
complex and difficult part of Scientific Management, is 
the training of the will of all members of the organiza- 
tion. Prof. Read states in his " Psychology " five 
means of training or influencing the will. These 
are 59 

" 1. The first important feature in training the will 
is the help furnished by supplying the mind with a 
useful body of ideas." 

" 2. The second great feature of the training of the 
will is the building up in the mind of the proper in- 
terests, and the habit of giving the attention to useful 
and worthy purposes." 

" 3. Another important feature of the training of 
the will is the establishing of a firm association be- 
tween ideas and actions, or, in other words, the form- 
ing of a good set of habits." 

"4. Another very important feature of the training 

59 M. S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 297-303. 



262 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of the will has reference to its strength of purpose or 
power of imitation." 

" 5. The matter of discipline." 

Teaching under Scientific Management does supply 
these five functions, and thus provide for the strength- 
ening and development of the will. 

Variations in Teaching of Apprentices and Jour- 
neymen. — Scientific Management must not only be 
prepared to teach apprentices, as must all types of 
management, it must also teach journeymen who 
have not acquired standard methods. 

Apprentices Are Easily Handled. — Teaching ap- 
prentices is a comparatively simple proposition, far 
simpler than under any other type of management. 
Standard methods enable the apprentice to become 
proficient long before his brother could, under the 
old type of teaching. The length of training re- 
quired depends largely on how fingerwise the ap- 
prentice is. 

Older Workers Must Be Handled with Tact. — 
With adult workers, the problem is not so simple. 
Old wrong habits, such as the use of ineffective mo- 
tions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult 
for the adult worker to alter his methods. Moreover, 
it may be most difficult to change his mental attitude, 
to convince him that the methods of Scientific Man- 
agement are correct. 

A successful worker under Traditional Manage- 
ment, who is proud of his work, will often be ex- 
tremely sensitive to what he is prone to regard as 
the " criticism " of Scientific Management with re- 
gard to him. 



TEACHING 263 

Appreciation of Varying Viewpoints Necessary. — 

No management can consider itself adequate that 
does not try to enter into the mental attitude of its 
workers. Actual practice shows that, with time and 
tact, almost any worker can be convinced that all 
criticism of him is constructive, and that for him to 
conform to the new standards is a mark of added 
proficiency, not an acknowledgment of ill-prepared- 
ness. The " Systems " do much toward this work of 
reconciling the older workers to the new methods, 
but most of all can be done by such teachers as can 
demonstrate their own change from old to standard 
methods, and the consequent promotion and suc- 
cess. This is, again, an opportunity for the exercise 
of personality. 

Scientific Management Provides Places for Such 
Teaching. — Under the methods of teaching em- 
ployed by Scientific Management, — right motions 
first, next speed, with quality as a resultant product, 
— it is most necessary to provide a place where 
learners can work. The standard planning of 
quality provides such a place. The plus and minus 
signs automatically divide labor so that the worker 
can be taught by degrees, being set at first where 
great accuracy is not demanded by the work, and 
being shifted to work requiring more accuracy as 
he becomes more proficient. In this way even the 
most untrained worker becomes efficient, and is en- 
gaged in actual productive work. 

Measurement of Teaching and Learning. — Under 
Scientific Management the results of teaching and 
learning become apparent automatically in records 



264 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of output. The learner's record of output of proper 
prescribed quality determines what pay he shall re- 
ceive, and also has a proportionate effect on the 
teacher's pay. Such a system of measurement may 
not be accurate as a report of the learner's gain, — 
for he doubtless gains mental results that cannot 
be seen in his output, — but it certainly does serve 
as an incentive to teaching and to learning. 

Relation of Teaching in Scientific Management to 
Academic Training and Vocational Guidance. 60 — 
Teaching under Scientific Management can never be 
most efficient until the field of such teaching is re- 
stricted to training learners who are properly pre- 
pared to receive industrial training. 61 This prepared- 
ness implies fitting school and academic training, and 
Vocational Guidance. 

Learner Should Be Manually Adept. — The learner 
should, before entering the industrial world, be 
taught to be manually adept, or fingerwise, to have 
such control over his trained muscles that they will 
respond quickly and accurately to orders. Such 
training should be started in infancy, 62 in the form of 
guided play, as, for example, whittling, sewing, knit- 
ting, handling mechanical toys and tools, and playing 
musical instruments, and continued up to, and into, 
the period of entering a trade. 

60 Hugo Mtinsterberg, American Problems, p. 29. 

61 Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5 of The Carnegie Foun- 
dation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 70. William Kent, 
Discussion of Paper 64.7, A. S. M. E., p. 891. 

62 A well known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in in- 
fancy, to prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure of a 
college education. 



TEACHING 265 

Schools Should Provide Mental Preparedness. — 

The schools should render every student capable 
of filling some place worthily in the industries. The 
longer the student remains in school, the higher the 
position for which he should be prepared. The 
amount and nature of the training in the schools 
depends largely on the industrial work to be done, 
and will be possible of more accurate estimation con- 
stantly, as Scientific Management standardizes work 
and shows what the worker must be to be most 
efficient. 

Vocational Guidance Must Provide Direction. — 
As made most clear in Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, 
" Vocational Guidance," 63 bureaus of competent 
directors stand ready to help the youth find that line 
of activity which he can follow best and with great- 
est satisfaction to himself. At present, such bureaus 
are seriously handicapped by the fact that little data 
of the industries are at hand, but this lack the 
bureaus are rapidly supplying by gathering such 
data as are available. Most valuable data will not 
be available until Scientific Management has been 
introduced into all lines. 

Progress Demands Cooperation. — Progress here, 
as everywhere, demands cooperation. 64 The three 
sets of educators, — the teachers in the school, in 
the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific 
Management, must recognize their common work, 

63 Meyer Bloomfield, The Vocational Guidance of Youth, Hough- 
ton Mifflin & Co. 

64 A. Pimloche, Pestalozsi and the Foundation of the Modern 
Elementary School, p. 139. 



266 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

and must cooperate to do it. There is absolutely 
no cause for conflict between the three; their fields 
are distinct, but supplementary. Vocational Guid- 
ance is the intermediary between the other two. 

SUMMARY 

Results to the Work. — Under the teaching of Tra- 
ditional Management, the learner may or may not 
improve the quantity and quality of his work. This 
depends almost entirely on the particular teacher 
whom the learner happens to have. There is no 
standard improvement to the work. 

Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the 
work gains in quantity as the methods become stand- 
ardized, and quality is maintained or improved. 

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, 
work, the quantity of work, increases enormously 
through the use of standards of all kinds ; quantity 
is oftentimes tripled. 

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, 
when the schools and Vocational Guidance move- 
ment cooperate, high output of required quality will 
be obtained at a far earlier stage of the worker's 
industrial life than is now possible, even under Scien- 
tific Management. 

Results to the Worker. — Under Traditional Man- 
agement, the worker gains a knowledge of how his 
work can be done, but the method by which he is 
taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not be- 
ing sure that he has learned the best way to do his 
work, he gains no method of attack. The result of 



TEACHING 267 

the teaching is a habit of doing work which is good, 
or bad, as chance may direct. 

Under Transitory Management, with the use of 
Systems as teachers, the worker gains a better 
method of attack, as he knows the reason why the 
prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to ap- 
preciate the possibilities and benefits of standardized 
teaching. 

The method laid down under Scientific Manage- 
ment is devised to further the forming of an ac- 
curate accumulation of concepts, which results in a 
proper method of attack. The method of instruc- 
tion under Scientific Management is devised to fur- 
nish two things : 

1. A collection of knowledge relating in its en- 
tirety to the future work of the learner. 

2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner 
to apply the same process to acquiring knowledge 
of other subjects in the most economical and efficient 
way. 

It teaches the learner to be observant of details, 
which is the surest method for further development 
of general truths and concepts. 

The method of attack of the methods provided 
for in Scientific Management results, naturally, in 
a comparison of true data. This is the most efficient 
method of causing the learner to think for himself. 

Processes differing but little, apparently, give 
vastly different results, and the trained habits of ob- 
servation quickly analyze and determine wherein the 
one process is more efficient than the other. 



268 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

This result is, of course, the one most desired for 
causing quick and intelligent learning. 

The most valuable education is that which enables 
the learner to make correct judgments. The teach- 
ing under Scientific Management leads to the acquisi- 
tion of such judgment, plus an all-around sense train- 
ing, a training in habits of work, and a progressive 
development. 

A partial topic list of the results may make more 
clear their importance. 

i. Worker better trained for all work. 

2. Habits of correct thinking instilled. 

3. Preparedness provided for. 

4. Productive and repetitive powers increased. 

5. Sense powers increased. 

6. Habits of proper reaction established. 

7. " Guided original work " established. 

8. System of waste elimination provided. 

9. Method of attack taught. 

10. Brain fully developed. 

11. "Standard response" developed. 

12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking" 
provided. 

13. Self-reliance developed. 

14. Love of truth fostered. 

15. Moral sentiment developed. 

16. Resultant happiness of worker. 

Results To Be Expected in the Future. — When the 
schools, vocational guidance and teaching under 
Scientific Management cooperate, the worker will 
not only receive the benefits now obtained from 
Scientific Management, but many more. There will 



TEACHING 269 

be nothing to unlearn, and each thing that is learned 
will be taught by those best fitted to teach it. The 
collection of vocational guidance data will begin 
with a child at birth, and a record of his inheritance 
will be kept. This will be added to as he is educated, 
and as various traits and tendencies appear. From 
this scientifically derived record will accrue such data 
as will assist in making clear exactly in what place the 
worker will be most efficient, and in what sphere he 
will be able to be most helpful to the world, as well 
as to himself. All early training will be planned to 
make the youth adept with his muscles, and alert, 
with a mind so trained that related knowledge is 
easily acquired. 

When the vocation for which he is naturally best 
fitted becomes apparent, as it must from the study 
of the development of the youth and his desires, the 
school will know, and can give exactly, that train- 
ing that is necessary for the vocation. It can also 
supplement his limitations intelligently, in case he 
decides to follow a vocation for which he is naturally 
handicapped. 

This will bring to the industry learners prepared 
to be taught those things that characterize the in- 
dustry, the " tricks of the trade," and the " secrets 
of the craft," now become standard, and free to all. 
Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared 
to give. The results of such teaching of Scientific 
Management will be a worker prepared in a short 
time to fill efficiently a position which will allow of 
promotion to the limit of his possibilities. 

The result of such teaching will be truly educated 



270 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

workers, equipped to work, and to live, 65 and to share 
the world's permanent satisfactions. 

The effect of such education on industrial peace 
must not be underestimated. With education, in- 
cluding in education learning and culture, — prej- 
udice will disappear. The fact that all men, those 
going into industries and those not, will be taught 
alike to be finger wise as well as book wise, up to the 
time of entering the industries, will lead to a better 
understanding of each other all through life. 

The entire bearing of Scientific Management on 
industrial peace cannot be here fully discussed. We 
must note here the strong effect that teaching un- 
der Scientific Management will ultimately have on 
doing away with industrial warfare, — the great war- 
fare of ignorance, where neither side understands 
the other, and where each side should realize that 
large immediate sacrifices should be made if neces- 
sary, that there may be obtained the great permanent 
benefit and savings that can be obtained only by 
means of the heartiest cooperation. 

05 Fried rich Froebel, Education of Man, " To secure for this 
ability skill and directness, to lift it into full consciousness, to give 
it insight and clearness, and to exalt it into a life of creative free- 
dom, is the business of the subsequent life of man in successive 
stages of development and cultivation." 



CHAPTER IX 
INCENTIVES 

Definition of Incentive. — An " incentive " is de- 
fined by the Century Dictionary as " that which 
moves the mind or stirs the passions; that which 
incites or tends to incite to action; motive, spur." 
Synonyms — " impulse, stimulus, incitement, en- 
couragement, goad." 

Importance of the Incentive. — The part that the 
incentive plays in the doing of all work is enormous. 
This is true in learning, and also in the performance 
of work which is the result of this learning: manual 
work and mental work as well. The business man 
finishing his work early that he may go to the base- 
ball game ; the boy at school rushing through his 
arithmetic that he may not be kept after school; 
the piece-worker, the amount of whose day's pay de- 
pends upon the quantity and quality he can produce ; 
the student of a foreign language preparing for a 
trip abroad, — these all illustrate the importance of 
the incentive as an element in the amount which is 
to be accomplished. 

Two Kinds of Incentives. — The incentive may be 
of two kinds: it may be first of all, a return, definite 
or indefinite, which is to be received when a certain 

271 



272 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

portion of the work is done, or it may be an incentive 
due to the working conditions themselves. The latter 
case is exemplified where two people are engaged in 
the same sort of work and start in to race one another 
to see who can accomplish the most, who can finish 
the fixed amount in the shortest space of time, or who 
can produce the best quality. The incentive may be 
in the form of some definite aim or goal which is un- 
derstood by the worker himself, or it may be in some 
natural instinct which is roused by the work, either 
consciously to the worker, or consciously to the man 
who is assigning the work, or consciously to both, or 
consciously to neither one. In any of these cases 
it is a natural instinct that is being appealed to and 
that induces the man to do more work, whether he 
sees any material reward for that work or not. 

Definitions of Two Types. — We may call the in- 
centive which utilizes the natural instinct, " direct 
incentive," and the incentive which utilizes these 
secondarily, through some set reward or punishment, 
" indirect incentive." This, at first sight, may seem 
a contradictory use of terms — it may seem that the 
reward would be the most direct of incentives; yet 
a moment's thought will cause one to realize that all 
the reward can possibly do is to arouse in the in- 
dividual a natural instinct which will lead him to in- 
crease his work. 

Indirect Incentives Include Two Classes. — We 
will discuss the indirect incentives first as, contrary 
to the usual use of the word " indirect," they are 
most easy to estimate and to describe. They divide 
themselves into two classes, reward and punishment. 



INCENTIVES 273 

Definition of Reward. — Reward is defined by the 
Century Dictionary as — " return, recompense, the 
fruit of one's labor or works; profit," with synonyms, 
" pay, compensation, remuneration, requital and re- 
tribution." Note particularly the word " retribu- 
tion," for it is this aspect of reward, that is, the 
just outcome of one's act, that makes the reward 
justly include punishment. The word " reward " ex- 
actly expresses what management would wish to be 
understood by the incentive that it gives its men to 
increase their work. 

Definition of Punishment. — The word " punish- 
ment " is defined as — " pain, suffering, loss, confine- 
ment, or other penalty inflicted on a person for a 
crime or offense by the authority to which the of- 
fender is subject," with synonyms, " chastisement, 
correction, discipline." 

The word punishment, as will be noted later, is 
most unfortunate when applied to what Scientific 
Management would mean by a penalty, though this 
word also is unfortunate; but, in the first place, there 
is no better word to cover the general meaning; and 
in the second place, the idea of pain and suffering, 
which Scientific Management aims to and does elim- 
inate, is present in some of the older forms of man- 
agement. Therefore the word punishment must 
stand. 

Rewards and Punishments Result in Action. — 
There can be no doubt that a reward is an incentive. 
There may well be doubt as to whether a punish- 
ment is an incentive to action or not. This, how- 
ever, is only at first glance, and the whole thing rests 



274 THE PSYCHOLOGY OP MANAGEMENT 

on the meaning of the word " action." To be active 
is certainly the opposite of being at rest. This be- 
ing true, punishment is just as surely an incentive to 
action as is reward. The man who is punished in 
every case will be led to some sort of action. 
Whether this really results in an increase of output 
or not simply determines whether the punishment is 
a scientifically prescribed punishment or not. If the 
punishment is of such a nature that the output ceases 
because of it, or that it incites the man punished 
against the general good, then it does not in any wise 
cease to be an active thing, but it is simply a wrong, 
and unscientifically assigned punishment, that acts in 
a detrimental way. 

Soldiering Alone Cuts Down Activity. — It is in- 
teresting to note that the greatest cause for cutting 
down output is related more closely to a reward than 
a punishment. Under such managements as provide 
no adequate reward for all, and no adequate assur- 
ance that all can receive extra rewards permanently 
without a cut in the rate, it may be advisable, for 
the worker's best interests, to limit output in order 
to keep the wages, or reward, up, and soldiering re- 
sults. The evils of soldiering will be discussed more 
at length under the " Systems of Pay." It is plain, 
however, here that soldiering is the result of a cut- 
ting down of action, and it is self-evident that 
anything which cuts down action is harmful, not 
only to the individual himself, but to society at 
large. 

Nature of Rewards and Punishments. — Under all 
types of management, the principal rewards consist 



INCENTIVES 275 

of promotion and pay, pay being a broad word used 
here to include regular wages, a bonus, shorter hours, 
other forms of remuneration or recompense; any- 
thing which can be given to the man who does the 
work to benefit him and increase his desire to con- 
tinue doing the work. Punishments may be nega- 
tive, that is, they may simply take the form of no 
reward; or they may be positive, that is, they may 
include fines, discharge, assignment to less re- 
munerative or less desirable work, or any other thing 
which can be given to the man to show him that 
he has not done what is expected of him and, in 
theory at least, to lead him to do better. 

Nature of Direct Incentives. — Direct incentives will 
be such native reaction as ambition, pride and pug- 
nacity; will be love of racing, love of play; love of 
personal recognition; will be the outcome of self- 
confidence and interest, and so on. 

The Reward Under Traditional Management Un- -\- 
standardized. — As with all other discussions of any 
part or form of Traditional Management, the dis- 
cussion of the incentive under Traditional Manage- 
ment is vague from the very nature of the subject. 
" Traditional " stands for vagueness and for varia- 
tion, for the lack of standardization, for the lack of 
definiteness in knowledge, in process, in results. 
The rewards under Traditional Management, as un- 
der all types of management, are promotion and pay. 
It must be an almost unthinkably poor system of 
management, even under Traditional Management, 
which did not attempt to provide for some sort of 
promotion of the man who did the most and best 



276 THE PSYCHOLOGY OP MANAGEMENT 

work; but the lack of standardization of conditions, 
of instructions, of the work itself, and of reward, 
makes it almost impossible not only to give the re- 
ward, but even to determine who deserves the re- 
ward. Under Traditional Management, the reward 
need not be positive, that is, it might simply consist 
in the negation of some previously existing disadvan- 
tage. It need not be predetermined. It might be 
nothing definite. It might not be so set ahead that 
the man might look forward to it. In other words 
it might simply be the outcome of the good, and in 
no wise the incentive for the good. It need not 
necessarily be personal. It could be shared with a 
group, or gang, and lose all feeling of personality. 
It need not be a fixed reward or a fixed performance; 
in fact, if the management were Traditional it would 
be almost impossible that it would be a fixed re- 
ward. It might not be an assured reward, and in 
most cases it was not a prompt reward. These fixed 
adjectives describe the reward of Scientific Manage- 
ment — positive, predetermined, personal, fixed, as- 
sured and prompt. A few of these might apply, or 
none might apply to the reward under Traditional 
Management. 

Reward a Prize Won by One Only. — If this re- 
ward, whether promotion or pay, was given to some- 
one under Traditional Management, this usually 
meant that others thereby lost it ; it was in the nature 
of a prize which one only could attain, and which 
the others, therefore, would lose, and such a lost 
prize is, to the average man, for the time at least, a 
dampener on action. The rewarding of the winner, 



INCENTIVES 277 

to the loss of all of the losers, has been met by the 
workmen getting together secretly, and selecting the 
winners for a week or more ahead, thus getting the 
same reward out of the employer without the extra 
effort. 

Punishment Under Traditional Management 
Wrong in Theory. — The punishment, under Tradi- 
tional Management, was usually much more than 
negative punishment; that is to say, the man who 
was punished usually received much more than sim- 
ply the negative return of getting no reward. The 
days of bodily punishment have long passed, yet the 
account of the beatings given to the galley slaves 
and to other workers in the past are too vividly de- 
scribed in authentic accounts to be lost from memory. 
To-day, under Traditional Management, punish- 
ment consists of 

1. fines, which are usually simply a cutting down 
of wages, the part deducted remaining with the com- 
pany, 

2. discharge, or 

3. assignment to less pleasant or less desirable 
work. 

This assignment is done on an unscientific basis, the 
man being simply put at something which he dis- 
likes, with no regard as to whether his efficiency at 
that particular work will be high or not. 

Results Are Unfortunate. — The punishment, un- 
der Traditional Management, is usually meted out 
by the foreman, simply as one of his many duties. 
He is apt to be so personally interested, and per- 
haps involved, in the case that his punishment will 



278 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

satisfy some wrong notions, impulse of anger, hate, 
or envy in him, and will arouse a feeling of shame or 
wounded pride, or unappreciation, in the man to 
whom punishment is awarded. 

Direct Incentives Not Scientifically Utilized. — 
As for what we have called direct incentive, the love 
of racing was often used under Traditional Manage- 
ment through Athletic Contests, the faults in these 
being that the men were not properly studied, so 
that they could be properly assigned and grouped; 
care was not always exercised that hate should not 
be the result of the contest; the contest was not al- 
ways conducted according to the rules of clean sport ; 
the men slighted quality in hastening the work, and 
the results of the athletic contests were not so written 
down as to be thereafter utilized. Love of play may 
have been developed unconsciously, but was cer- 
tainly not often studied. Love of personal recogni- 
tion was probably often utilized, but in no scientific 
way. Neither was there anything in Traditional 
Management to develop self-confidence, or to arouse 
and maintain interest in any set fashion. Naturally, 
if the man were in a work which he particularly 
liked, which under Traditional Management was a 
matter of luck, he would be more or less interested 
in it, but there was no scientific way of arousing or 
holding his interest. Under Traditional Manage- 
ment, a man might take pride in his work, as did 
many of the old bricklayers and masons, who would 
set themselves apart after hours if necessary, lock 
themselves in, and cut bricks for a complicated arch 
or fancy pattern, but such pride was in no way fos- 



INCENTIVES 279 

tered through the efforts of the management. Pug- 
nacity was aroused, but it might have an evil effect 
as well as a good, so far as the management had 
any control. Ambition, in the same way, might be 
stimulated, and might not. There is absolutely noth- 
ing under Traditional Management to prevent a man 
being ambitious, gratifying his pride, and gratifying 
his pugnacity in a right way, and at the same time 
being interested in his work, but there was nothing 
under Traditional Management which provided for 
definite and exact methods for encouraging these 
good qualities, seeing that they developed in a proper 
channel, and scientifically utilizing the outcome again 
and again. 

Pay for Performance Provided for by Transitory 
Management. — Under Transitory Management, as 
soon as practicable, one bonus is paid for doing work 
according to the method prescribed. As standard- 
ization takes place, the second bonus for completing 
the task in the time set can be paid. As each ele- 
ment of Scientific Management is introduced, incen- 
tives become more apparent, more powerful, and 
more assured. 

Direct Incentives More Skillfully Used. — With the 
separating of output, and recording of output sep- 
arately, love of personal recognition grew, self-con- 
fidence grew, interest in one's work grew. The 
Athletic Contest is so conducted that love of speed, 
love of play, and love of competition are encouraged, 
the worker constantly feeling that he can indulge 
in these, as he is assured of "fair play." 

Incentives Under Scientific Management Construe- 



2 8o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tive. — It is most important, psychologically and 
ethically, that it be understood that Scientific Man- 
agement is not in any sense a destructive power. 
That only is eliminated that is harmful, or wasteful, 
or futile ; everything that is good is conserved, and is 
utilized as much as it has ever been before, often 
much more than it has ever been utilized. The con- 
structive force, under Scientific Management, is one 
of its great life principles. This is brought out very 
plainly in considering incentives under Scientific 
Management. With the scientifically determined 
wage, and the more direct and more sure plan of 
promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded 
incentives of older types of management. The value 
of a fine personality in all who are to be imitated is 
not forgotten; the importance of using all natural 
stimuli to healthful activity is appreciated. Scien- 
tific Management uses all these, in so far as they can 
be used to the best outcome for workers and work, 
and supplements them by such scientifically derived 
additions as could never have been derived under 
the older types. 

Characteristics of the Reward. — Rewards, under 
Scientific Management are — 

(a) positive; that is to say, the reward must be 
a definite, positive gain to the man, and not 
simply a taking away of some thing which 
may have been a drawback. 

(b) predetermined; that is to say, before the 
man begins to work it must be determined 
exactly what reward he is to get for doing 
the work. 



INCENTIVES 281 

(c) personal; that is, individual, a reward for 
that particular man for that particular 
work. 

(d) fixed, unchanged. He must get exactly 
what it has been determined beforehand 
that he shall get. 

(e) assured; that is to say, there must be pro- 
vision made for this reward before the man 
begins to work, so that he may be positive 
that he will get the reward if he does the 
work. The record of the organization must 
be that rewards have always been paid in 
the past, therefore probably will be in the 
future. 

(f) the reward must be prompt; that is to say, 
as soon as the work has been done, the man 
must get the reward. This promptness ap- 
plies to the announcement of the reward; 
that is to say, the man must know at once 
that he has gotten the reward, and also to 
the receipt of the reward by the man. 

Positive Reward Arouses Interest and Holds At- 
tention. — The benefit of the positive reward is that 
it arouses and holds attention. A fine example of a 
reward that is not positive is that type of " welfare 
work " which consists of simply providing the 
worker with such surroundings as will enable him to 
work decently and without actual discomfort. The 
worker, naturally, feels that such surroundings are 
his right, and in no sense a reward and incentive to 
added activity. The reward must actually offer to 
the worker something which he has a right to ex- 



282 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

pect only if he earns it; something which will be a 
positive addition to his life. 

Predetermined Reward Concentrates Attention. — 

The predetermined reward allows both manager and 
man to concentrate their minds upon the work. 
There is no shifting of the attention, while the 
worker wonders what the reward that he is to re- 
ceive will be. It is also a strong factor for industrial 
peace, and for all the extra activities which will come 
when industrial conditions are peaceful. 

Personal Reward Conserves Individuality. — The 
personal reward is a strong incentive toward initia- 
tive, towards the desire to make the most of one's 
individuality. It is an aid toward the feeling of per- 
sonal recognition. From this personal reward come 
all the benefits which have been considered under in- 
dividuality. 1 

Fixed Reward Eliminates Waste Time. — The fact 
that the reward is fixed is a great eliminater of waste 
to the man and to the manager both. Not only does 
the man concentrate better under the fixed reward, 
but the reward, being fixed, need not be determined 
anew, over and over again; that is to say, every time 
that that kind of work is done, simultaneous with the 
arising of the work comes the reward that is to be 
paid for it. All the time that would be given to de- 
termining the reward, satisfying the men and arguing 
the case, is saved and utilized. 

Assured Reward Aids Concentration. — The as- 
sured reward leads to concentration, — even perhaps 

1 W. P. Gillette, Cost Analysis Engineering, p. 3. 



INCENTIVES 283 

more so than the fact that the reward is determined. 
In case the man was not sure that he would get the 
reward in the end, he would naturally spend a great 
deal of time wondering whether he would or not. 
Moreover, no immediate good fortune counts for 
much as an incentive if there is a prospect of bad luck 
following in the immediate future. 

Need for Promptness Varies. — The need for 
promptness of the reward varies. If the reward is to 
be given to a man of an elementary type of mind, the 
reward must be immediately announced and must be 
actually given very promptly, as it is impossible for 
anyone of such a type of intellect to look forward 
very far. 2 A man of a high type of intellectual de- 
velopment is able to wait a longer time for his re- 
ward, and the element of promptness, while acting 
somewhat as an incentive, is not so necessary. 

Under Scientific Management, with the ordinary 
type of worker on manual work, it has been found 
most satisfactory to pay the reward every day, or 
at the end of the week, and to announce the score of 
output as often as every hour. This not only sat- 
isfies the longing of the normal mind to know exactly 
where it stands, but also lends a fresh impetus to 
repeat the high record. There is also, through the 
prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in 
wondering what the result will be, and in allaying 
suspense. Suspense is not a stimulus to great ac- 
tivity, as anyone who has waited for the result of a 
doubtful examination can testify, it being almost im- 

2 F. W. Taylor, Paper 647, A. S. M. E., para, 33, para. 59. 



284 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

possible to concentrate the mind on any other work 
until one knows whether the work which has been 
done has been completed satisfactorily or not. 

Promptness Always an Added Incentive. — There 
are many kinds of life work and modes of living so 
terrible as to make one shudder at the thoughts of 
the certain sickness, death, or disaster that are al- 
most absolutely sure to follow such a vocation. Men 
continue to work for those wages that lead posi- 
tively to certain death, because of the immediateness 
of the sufficient wages, or reward. This takes their 
attention from their ultimate end. Much more 
money would be required if payment were postponed, 
say, five years after the act, to obtain the services of 
the air-man, or the worker subject to the poisoning 
of some branches of the lead and mercury industries. 

If the prompt reward is incentive enough to make 
men forget danger and threatened death, how much 
more efficient is it in increasing output where there 
is no such danger. 

Immediate Reward Not Always Preferable. — 
There are cases where the prompt reward is not to 
be preferred, because the delayed reward will be 
greater, or will be available to more people Such 
is the case with the reward that comes from unre- 
stricted output". 

For example, — the immediacy of the temporarily 
increased reward caused by restricting output has 
often led the combinations of working men to such 
restriction, with an ultimate loss of reward to worker, 
to employer, and to the consumer. 

Rewards Possible of Attainment by All. — Every 



INCENTIVES 28s 

man working under Scientific Management has a 
chance to win a reward. This means not only that the 
man has a " square deal," for the man may have a 
square deal under Traditional Management in that he 
may have a fair chance to try for all existing rewards. 
There is more than this under Scientific Manage- 
ment. By the very nature of the plan itself, the re- 
wards are possible of achievement by all; any one 
man, by winning, in no way diminishes the chances 
of the others. 

Rewards of Management Resemble Rewards of 
Workers. — So far the emphasis, in the discussion of 
reward, has been on the reward as given to the 
worker, and his feeling toward it. The reward to the 
management is just as sure. It lies in the increased 
output and therefore the possibility of lower costs 
and of greater financial gain. It is as positive; it 
is as predetermined, because before the reward to the 
men is fixed the management realizes what propor- 
tion that reward will bear to the entire undertaking, 
and exactly what profits can be obtained. It is a 
fundamental of Scientific Management that the man- 
agement shall be able to prophesy the outputs ahead. 
It will certainly be as personal, if the management 
side is as thoroughly systematized as is the managed; 
it will be as fixed and as assured, and it certainly is 
as prompt, as the cost records can be arranged to 
come to the management every day, if that is desired. 

Results of Such Rewards. — There are three other 
advantages to management which might well be 
added here. First, that a reward such as this at- 
tracts the best men to the work; second, that the 



286 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

reward, and the stability of it, indicates the stability 
of the entire institution, and thus raises its standing 
in the eyes of the community as well as in its own 
eyes; and third, that it leads the entire organization, 
both managed and managing, to look favorably at all 
standardization. The standardized reward is sure to 
be attractive to all members. As soon as it is 
realized that the reason that it is attractive is because 
it is standardised, the entire subject of standardiza- 
tion rises in the estimation of every one, and the in- 
troduction of standards can be carried on more 
rapidly, and with greater success. 

Rewards Divided into Promotion and Pay. — Re- 
wards may be divided into two kinds; first, promo- 
tion and, second, pay. Under Scientific Manage- 
ment promotion is assured for every man and, as 
has been said, this promotion does not thereby hold 
back others from having the same sort of promotion. 
There is an ample place, under Scientific Manage- 
ment, for every man to advance. 3 Not only is the 
promotion sure, thus giving the man absolute as- 
surance that he will advance as his work is satis- 
factory, but it is also gradual. 4 The promotion must 
be by degrees, otherwise the workers may get dis- 
couraged, from finding their promotion has come 
faster than has their ability to achieve, and the lack 
of attention, due to being discouraged, may be con- 
tagious. It is, therefore, of vital importance that the 
worker be properly selected, in order that, in his ad- 
vancement and promotion, he shall be able to achieve 

3 Hugo Diemer, Factory Organisation and Administration, p. 5. 

4 James M. Dodge, Paper 1115, A. S. M. E., p. 723. 



INCENTIVES 287 

his task after having been put at the new work. He 
must be advanced and promoted in a definite line of 
gradual development, in accordance with a fully con- 
ceived plan. This should be worked out and set 
down in writing as a definite plan, similar to the plan 
on the instruction card of one of his tasks. 

Promotion May Be to Places Within or Without 
the Business. — In many lines of business, the 
business itself offers ample opportunity for pro- 
moting all men who can " make good " as rapidly 
as they can prepare themselves for positions over 
others, and for advancement; but under Scientific 
Management provision is made even in case the busi- 
ness does not offer such opportunities. 5 This is done 
by the management finding places outside their own 
organization for the men who are so trained that they 
can be advanced. 

Such Promotion Attracts Workers. — While at first 
glance it might seem a most unfortunate thing for 
the management to have to let its men go, and while, 
as D'r. Taylor says, it is unfortunate for a business to 
get the reputation of being nothing but a training 
school, on the other hand, it has a very salutary effect 
upon the men to know that their employers are so 
disinterestedly interested in them that they will pro- 
vide for their future, even at the risk of the individual 
business at which they have started having to lose 
their services. This will not only, as Dr. Taylor 
makes clear, stimulate many men in the establish- 
ment whose men go on to take the places of those who 

5 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 310-31 1, Harper Ed., pp. 
142-143. 



288 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

are promoted, but will also be a great inducement 
to other men to come into a place that they feel is 
unselfish and generous. 

Subdivisions of " Pay." — Under " Pay " we have 
included eight headings: 

i. Wages 

2. Bonus 

3. Shorter hours 

4. Prizes other than money 

5. Extra knowledge 

6. Method of attack 

7. Good opinion of others 

8. Professional standing. 

Relation Between Wages and Bonus. — Wages and 
bonus are closely related. By wages we mean a fixed 
sum, or minimum hourly rate, that the man gets in 
any case for his time, and by bonus we mean addi- 
tional money that he receives for achievement of 
method, quantity or quality. Both might very prop- 
erly be included under wages, or under money re- 
ceived for the work, or opportunities for receiving 
money for work, as the case might be. In the dis- 
cussion of the different ways of paying wages un- 
der Scientific Management, there will be no attempt 
to discuss the economic value of the various means; 
the different methods will simply be stated, and the 
psychological significance will be, as far as possible, 
given. 

Before discussing the various kinds of wages ad- 
vised by the experts in Scientific Management, it is 
well to pause a moment to name the various sorts of 
methods of compensation recognized by authorities. 



INCENTIVES 289 

David F. Schloss in his " Method of Industrial 
Remuneration " divides all possible ways of gaining 
remuneration into three — 

1. the different kinds of wages 

1. time wage 

2. piece wage 

3. task wage 

4. progressive wage 

5. collective piece wage 

6. collective task wage 

7. collective progressive wage 

8. contract work 

9. cooperative work 
with 

2. profit sharing, and 

3. industrial cooperation. These are defined and 
discussed at length in his book in a lucid and simple 
manner. 

It is only necessary to quote him here as to the 
relationship between these different forms, where he 
says, page 11, — "The two leading forms of industrial 
remuneration under the Wages System are time 
wages, and piece wages. Intermediate between 
these principal forms, stands that known as task 
wage, while supplemental to these two named meth- 
ods, we find those various systems which will here 
be designated by the name of Progressive Wages." 6 

Day Work Never Scientific. — The simplest of all 

6 See also C. U. Carpenter, Profit Making in Shop and Factory 
Management, pp. 113-115. For an extended and excellent account 
of the theory of well-known methods of compensating workmen, 
see C. B. Going, Principles of Industrial Engineering, chap. VIII. 



2QO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

systems, says Dr. Taylor in " A Piece Rate System," 
paragraph 10, in discussing the various forms of com- 
pensation " is the Day Work plan, in which the em- 
ployes are divided into certain classes, and a stand- 
ard rate of wages is paid to each class of men." He 
adds — " The men are paid according to the position 
which they fill, and not according to their individual 
character, energy, skill and reliability." The psy- 
chological objection to day work is that it does. not 
arouse interest or effort or hold attention, nor does 
it inspire to memorizing or to learning. 

It will be apparent that there is no inducement 
whatever for the man to do more than just enough 
to retain his job, for he in no wise shares in the re- 
ward for an extra effort, which goes entirely to his 
employer. " Reward," in this case, is usually simply 
a living wage, — enough to inspire the man, if he 
needs the money enough to work to hold his position, 
but not enough to incite him to any extra effort. 

It is true that, in actual practice, through the fore- 
man or some man in authority, the workers on day 
work may be " speeded up " to a point where they 
will do a great deal of work; the foreman being in- 
spired, of course, by a reward for the extra output, 
but, as Dr. Taylor says, paragraph 17 — "A Piece 
Rate System," this sort of speeding up is absolutely 
lacking in self-sustaining power. The moment that 
this rewarded foreman is removed, the work will 
again fall down. Therefore, day wage has almost 
no place in ultimate, scientifically managed work. 

Piece Work Provides Pay in Proportion to Work 
Done. — Piece Work is the opposite of time work, 



INCENTIVES agi 

in that under it the man is paid not for the time he 
spends at the work, but for the amount of work 
which he accomplishes. Under this system, as 
long as the man is paid a proper piece rate, and a 
rate high enough to keep him interested, he will have 
great inducements to work. He will have a chance 
to develop individuality, a chance for competition, 
a chance for personal recognition. His love of rea- 
sonable racing will be cultivated. His love of play 
may be cultivated. 

All of these incentives arise because the man feels 
that his sense of justice is being considered; that if 
the task is properly laid out, and the price per piece 
is properly determined, he is given a " square deal " 
in being allowed to accomplish as great an amount of 
work as he can, with the assurance that his reward 
will be promptly coming to him. 

Danger of Rate Being Cut. — Piece work becomes 
objectionable only when the rate is cut. The mo- 
ment the rate is cut the first time, the man begins 
to wonder whether it is going to be cut again, and his 
attention is distracted from the work by his debat- 
ing this question constantly. At best, his attention 
wanders from one subject to the other, and back 
again. It cannot be concentrated on his work. 
After the rate has been cut once or twice, — and it 
is sure to be cut unless it has been set from scien- 
tifically derived elementary time units, — the man 
loses his entire confidence in the stability of the rate, 
and, naturally, when he loses this confidence, his work 
is done more slowly, due to lack of further en- 
thusiasm. On the contrary, as long as it is to his 



292 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

advantage to do the work and he is sure that his re- 
ward will be prompt, and that he will always get the 
price that has been determined as right by him and 
by the employers for his work, he can do this work 
easily in the time set. As soon as he feels that he 
will not get it, he will naturally begin to do less, as 
it will be not only to his personal advantage to do as 
little as possible, but also very much to the advan- 
tage of his fellows, for whom the rate will also be 
cut. 

Task Wage Contains No Incentive to Additional 
Work. — What Schloss calls the Task Wage would, 
as he well says, be the intermediate between time or 
day wage and piece wage; that is, it would be the 
assigning of a definite amount of work to be done 
in definite time, and to be paid for by a definite sum. 
If the task were set scientifically, and the time scien- 
tifically determined, as it must naturally be for a 
scientific task, and the wage adequate for that work, 
there would seem to be nothing about this form of 
remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisfac- 
tion to the worker. Naturally, however, there would 
be absolutely no chance for him to desire to go any 
faster than the time set, or to accomplish any more 
work in the time set than that which he was obliged 
to, in that he could not possibly get anything for the 
extra work done. 

Worth of Previous Methods in the Handling. — It 
will be noted in the discussion of the three types of 
compensation so far discussed, that there is nothing 
in them that renders them unscientific. Any one of 
the three may be used, and doubtless all are used, on 



INCENTIVES 293 

works which are attempting to operate under Scien- 
tific Management. Whether they really are scien- 
tific methods of compensation or not, is determined 
by the way that they are handled. Certainly, how- 
ever, all that any of these three can expect to do is 
to convince the man that he is being treated justly; 
that is to say, if he knows what sort of a contract 
he is entering into, the contract is perfectly fair, pro- 
vided that the management keeps its part of the con- 
tract, pays the agreed-upon wage. 

In proceeding, instead of following the order of 
Schloss we will follow the order, at least for a time, 
of Dr. Taylor in "A Piece Rate System"; this for 
two reasons: 

First, for the reason that the " Piece Rate Sys- 
tem " is later than Schloss' book, Schloss being 1891, 
and the "Piece Rate" being 1895; in the second 
place that we are following the Scientific Manage- 
ment side in distinction to the general economic side, 
laid down by Schloss. There is, however, nothing 
in our plan of discussion here to prevent one's fol- 
lowing fairly closely in the Schloss also. 

The Gain-sharing Plan. — We take up, then, the 
Gain-sharing Plan which was invented by Mr. Henry 
R. Towne and used by him with success in the Yale 
& Towne works. This is described in a paper read 
before the American Society of Mechanical En- 
gineers, in professional paper No. 341, in 1888 and 
also in the Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's modification 
of it, described by him in a paper entitled the " Pre- 
mium Plan of Paying for Labor," American Society 
of Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, 



294 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

in describing the Profit-sharing Plan, Mr. Halsey 
says — " Under it, in addition to regular wages, the 
employes were offered a certain percentage of the 
final profits of the business. It thus divides the sav- 
ings due to increased production between employer 
and employe." 

Objections to This Plan. — We note here the ob- 
jection to this plan: First, — " The workmen are given 
a share in what they do not earn; second, the work- 
men share regardless of individual deserts; third, the 
promised rewards are remote ; fourth, the plan makes 
no provision for bad years ; fifth, the workmen have 
no means of knowing if the agreement is carried out." 
Without discussing any farther whether these are 
worded exactly as all who have tried the plan might 
have found them, we may take these on Mr. Halsey's 
authority and discuss the psychology of them. If the 
workmen are given a share in what they do not earn, 
they have absolutely no feeling that they are being 
treated justly. This extra reward which is given to 
them, if in the nature of a present, might much bet- 
ter be a present out and out. If it has no scientific 
relation to what they have gotten, if the workmen 
share regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr. 
Taylor says, paragraph 27 in the " Piece Rate Sys- 
tem," is the most serious defect of all, in that it does 
not allow for recognition of the personal merits of 
each workman. If the rewards are remote, the in- 
terest is diminished. If the plan makes no provision 
for bad years, it cannot be self-perpetuating. If the 
workmen have no means of knowing if the agree- 
ment will be carried out or not, they will be con- 



INCENTIVES 295 

stantly wondering whether it is being carried out or 
not, and their attention will wander. 

The Premium Plan. — The Premium Plan is thus 
described by Mr. Halsey — "The time required to do 
a given piece of work is determined from previous 
experience, and the workman, in addition to his usual 
daily wages, is offered a premium for every hour by 
which he reduces that time on future work, the 
amount of the premium being less than his rate of 
wages. Making the hourly premium less than the 
hourly wages is the foundation stone upon which 
rest all the merits of the system." 

Dr. Taylor's Description of This Plan. — Dr. Taylor 
comments upon this plan as follows : 

" The Towne-Halsey plan consists in recording the 
quickest time in which a job has been done, and fixing 
this as a standard. If the workman succeeds in do- 
ing the job in a shorter time, he is still paid his same 
wages per hour for the time he works on the job, 
and, in addition, is given a premium for having 
worked faster, consisting of from one-quarter to one- 
half the difference between the wages earned and the 
wages originally paid when the job was done in 
standard time." Dr. Taylor's discussion of this plan 
will be found in " Shop Management," paragraphs 
79 to 91. 

Psychologically, the defect of this system undoubt- 
edly is that it does not rest upon accurate scientific 
time study, therefore neither management nor men 
can predict accurately what is going to happen. Not 
being able to predict, they are unable to devote their 
entire attention to the work in hand, and the result 



296 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

cannot be as satisfactory as under an assigned task, 
based upon time study. The discussion of this is so 
thorough in Dr. Taylor's work, and in Mr. Halsey's 
work, that it is unnecessary to introduce more here. 
Profit-sharing. — Before turning to the methods of 
compensation which are based upon the task, it might 
be well to introduce here mention of " Coopera- 
tion," or " Profit-sharing," which, in its extreme 
form, usually means the sharing of the profits from 
the business as a whole, among the men. who do the 
work. This is further discussed by Schloss, and also 
by Dr. Taylor in paragraphs 32 to 35, in "A Piece 
Rate System"; also in "Shop Management," quo- 
ting from the " Piece Rate System," paragraphs 73 

to 77- 

Objections to Profit-sharing. — The objections, Dr. 
Taylor says, to cooperation are, first in the fact that 
no form of cooperation has been devised in which 
each individual is allowed free scope for his personal 
ambition; second, in the remoteness of the reward; 
third, in the unequitable division of the profits. If 
each individual is not allowed free scope, one sees 
at once that the entire advantage of individuality, 
and of personal recognition, is omitted. If the re- 
ward is remote, we recognize that its power di- 
minishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be eq- 
uitable division of the profits, not only will the men 
ultimately not be satisfied, but they will, after a short 
time, not even be satisfied while they are working, 
because their minds will constantly be distracted by 
the fact that the division will probably not be eq- 



INCENTIVES 297 

uitable, and also by the fact that they will be trying 
to plan ways in which they can get their proper 
share. Thus, not only in the ultimate outcome, but 
also during the entire process, the work will slow 
up necessarily, because the men can have no assur- 
ance either that the work itself, or the output, have 
been scientifically determined. 

Scientific Management Embodies Valuable Ele- 
ments of Profit-sharing. — Scientific Management 
embodies the valuable elements of profit-sharing, 
namely, the idea of cooperation, and the idea that the 
workers should share in the profit. 

That the latter of these two is properly emphasized 
by Scientific Management is not always understood 
by the workers. When a worker is enabled to make 
three or four times as much output in a day as he has 
been accustomed to, he may think that he is not get- 
ting his full share of the " spoils " of increased effi- 
ciency, unless he gets a proportionately increased 
rate of pay. It should, therefore, be early made clear 
to him that the saving has been caused by the ac- 
tions of the management, quite as much as by the in- 
creased efforts for productivity of the men. Fur- 
thermore, a part of the savings must go to pay for 
the extra cost of maintaining the standard conditions 
that make such output possible. The necessary 
planners and teachers usually are sufficient as object- 
lessons to convince the workers of the necessity of 
not giving all the extra savings to the workers. 

It is realized that approximately one third of the 
extra profits from the savings must go to the em- 



ag8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

ployer, about one third to the employes, and the re- 
mainder for maintaining the system and carrying out 
further investigations. 

This once understood, the satisfaction that results 
from a cooperative, profit-sharing type of manage- 
ment will be enjoyed. 

The five methods of compensation which are to 
follow are all based upon the task, as laid down by 
Dr. Taylor; that is to say, upon time study, and an 
exact knowledge by the man, and the employers, of 
how much work can be done. 

Differential Rate Piece Work the Ultimate Form 
of Compensation. — Dr. Taylor's method of com- 
pensation, which is acknowledged by all thoroughly 
grounded in Scientific Management to be the ulti- 
mate form of compensation where it can be used, is 
called Differential Rate Piece Work. It is described 
in " A Piece Rate System," paragraphs 50 to 52, as 
follows : — 

" This consists, briefly, in paying a higher price 
per piece, or per unit, or per job, if the work is done 
in the shortest possible time and without imperfec- 
tion, than is paid if the work takes a longer time or 
is imperfectly done. To illustrate — suppose 20 
units, or pieces, to be the largest amount of work of 
a certain kind that can be done in a day. Under the 
differential rate system, if a workman finishes 20 
pieces per day, and all of these pieces are perfect, 
he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay 
for the day 15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he 
works too slowly and turns out only, say 19 pieces, 
then instead of receiving 15 cents per piece he gets 



INCENTIVES 299 

only 12 cents per piece, making his pay for the day 
i2Xi9=$2.28, instead of $3.00 per day. If he suc- 
ceeds in finishing 20 pieces — some of which are im- 
perfect — then he should receive a still lower rate of 
pay, say 10c or 5c per piece, according to circum- 
stances, making his pay for the day $2.00 or only $1.00, 
instead of $3.00." 

Advantages of This System. — This system is 
founded upon knowledge that for a large reward men 
will do a large amount of work. The small compen- 
sation for a small amount of work — and under 
this system the minimum compensation is a little be- 
low the regular day's work — may lead men to exert 
themselves to accomplish more work. This system 
appeals to the justice of the men, in that it is more 
nearly an exact ratio of pay to endeavor. 

Task Work with a Bonus. — The Task work with 
Bonus system of compensation, which is the inven- 
tion of Mr. H. L. Gantt, is explained in " A Bonus 
System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, read before 
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, De- 
cember, 1901, by Mr. Gantt. This system is there 
described as follows: — 

" If the man follows his instructions and accom- 
plishes all the work laid out for him as constituting 
his proper task for the day, he is paid a definite bonus 
in addition to the day rate which he always gets. If, 
however, at the end of the day he has failed to ac- 
complish all of the work laid out, he does not get his 
bonus, but simply his day rate." This system of com- 
pensation is explained more fully in Chapter VI of 
Mr. Gantt's book, " Work, Wages and Profits," 



3 oo THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

where he explains the modification now used by him 
in the bonus. 

Advantages of Task Work with a Bonus. — The 
psychological advantage of the task with a Bonus is 
the fact that the worker has the assurance of a living 
wage while learning, no matter whether he succeeds 
in winning his bonus or not. In the last analysis, it is 
" day rate " for the unskilled, and " piece rate " for 
the skilled, and it naturally. leads to a feeling of se- 
curity in the worker. Mr. Gantt has so admirably 
explained the advantages, psychological as well as 
industrial, of his system, that it is unnecessary to go 
farther, except to emphasize the fine feeling of 
brotherhood which underlies the idea, and its ex- 
pression. 

The Differential Bonus System. — The Differential 
Bonus System of Compensation is the invention of 
Mr. Frederick A. Parkhurst, and is described by him 
in his book " Applied Methods of Scientific Manage- 
ment." 

" The time the job should be done in is first de- 
termined by analysis and time study. The bonus is 
then added above the day work line. No bonus is 
paid until a definitely determined time is realized. 
As the time is reduced, the bonus is increased." 

Three Rate with Increased Rate System. — The 
Three Rate System of Compensation is the inven- 
tion of Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth and consists of day 
work, i. e., a day rate, or a flat minimum rate, which 
all who are willing to work receive until they can 
try themselves out; of a middle rate, which is given 
to the man when he accomplishes the work with ex- 



INCENTIVES 301 

actness of compliance to prescribed motions, accord- 
ing to the requirements of his instruction card; and 
of a high rate, which is paid to the man when he not 
only accomplishes the task in accordance with the 
instruction card, but also within the set time and of 
the prescribed quality of finished work. 

Advantage of This System. — The advantage of 
this is, first of all, that the man does not have to look 
forward so far for some of his reward, as it comes 
to him just as soon as he has shown himself able to 
do the prescribed methods required accurately. The 
first extra reward is naturally a stimulus toward win- 
ning the second extra reward. The middle rate is 
a stimulus to endeavor to perform that method which 
will enable him easiest to achieve the accomplishment 
of the task that pays the highest wage. The day rate 
assures the man of a living wage. The middle rate 
pays him a bonus for trying to learn. The high rate 
gives him a piece rate when he is skilled. 

Lastly, as the man can increase his output, with 
continued experience, above that of the task, he re- 
ceives a differential rate piece on the excess quantity, 
this simply making an increasing stimulus to exceed 
his previous best record. 

All Task Systems Investigate Loss of Bonus. — 
Under all these bonus forms of wages, if the bonus is 
not gained the fact is at once investigated, in order 
that the blame may rest where it belongs. The blame 
may rest upon the workers, or it may be due to the 
material, which may be defective, or different from 
standard; it may be upon the supervision, or some 
fault of the management in not supplying the ma- 



302 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

terial in the proper quality, or sequence, or a bad 
condition of tools or machinery; or upon the instruc- 
tion card. The fact that the missing of the bonus 
is investigated is an added assurance to the work- 
man that he is getting the " square deal," and enlists 
his sympathy with these forms of bonus system, and 
his desire to work under them. The fact that the 
management will investigate also allows him to con- 
centrate upon output, with no worry as to the neces- 
sity of his investigating places where he has fallen 
short. 

Necessity for Workers Bearing This Loss. — In any 
case, whether the blame for losing the bonus is the 
worker's fault directly or not, he loses his bonus. 
This, for two reasons; in the first place, if he did not 
lose his bonus he would have no incentive to try to 
discover flaws before delays occurred; he would, 
otherwise, have an incentive to allow the material 
to pass through his hands, defective or imperfect as 
the case might be. This is very closely associated 
with the second reason, and that is, that the bonus 
comes from the savings caused by the plan of man- 
agement, and that it is necessary that the workers 
as well as the management shall see that everything 
possible tends to increase the saving. It is only as 
the worker feels that his bonus is a part of the sav- 
ing, that he recognizes the justice of his receiving it, 
that it is in no wise a gift to him, simply his proper 
share, accorded not by any system of philanthropy, 
or so-called welfare work, but simply because his own 
personal work has made it possible for the manage- 
ment to hand back his share to him. 



INCENTIVES 303 

Users of Any Task System Appreciate Other Task 

Systems. — It is of great importance to the workers 
that the users of any of these five methods of compen- 
sation of Scientific Management are all ready and 
glad to acknowledge the worth of all these systems. 
In many works more than one, in some all, of these 
systems of payment may be in use. Far from this 
resulting in confusion, it simply leads to the under- 
standing that whatever is best in the particular situ- 
ation should be used. It also leads to a feeling of 
stability everywhere, as a man who has worked under 
any of these systems founded on time study can easily 
pass to another. There is also a great gain here in 
the doing away of industrial warfare. 

Shorter Hours and Holidays Effective Rewards.— 
Probably the greatest incentive, next to promotion 
and more pay, are shorter hours and holidays. In 
some cases, the shorter hours, or holidays, have 
proven even more attractive to the worker than the 
increase of pay. In Shop Management, paragraph 
165, Dr. Taylor describes a case where children work- 
ing were obliged to turn their entire pay envelopes 
over to their parents. To them, there was no par- 
ticular incentive in getting more money, but, when 
the task was assigned, if they were allowed to go as 
soon as their task was completed, the output was ac- 
complished in a great deal shorter time. Another 
case where shorter hours were successfully tried, was 
in an office where the girls were allowed the entire 
Saturday every two weeks, if the work was accom- 
plished within a set amount of time. This extra 
time for shopping and matinees proved more attrac- 



3o 4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tive than any reasonable amount of extra pay that 
could be offered. 

Desire for Approbation an Incentive. — Under " In- 
dividuality " were discussed various devices for de- 
veloping the individuality of the man, such as his 
picture over a good output or record. These all act 
as rewards or incentives. How successful they would 
be, depends largely upon the temperament of the man 
and the sort of work that is to be done. In all classes 
of society, among all sorts of people, there is the 
type that loves approbation. This type will be ap- 
pealed to more by a device which allows others to 
see what has been done than by almost anything else. 
As to what this device must be, depends on the in- 
telligence of the man. 

Necessity for Cooperation a Strong Incentive. — 
Under Scientific Management, many workers are 
forced by their coworkers to try to earn their bo- 
nuses, as " falling down on " tasks, and therefore 
schedules, may force them to lose their bonuses also. 

The fact that, in many kinds of work, a man falling 
below his task will prevent his fellows from working, 
is often a strong incentive to that man to make better 
speed. For example, on a certain construction job 
in Canada, the teamsters were shown that, by their 
work, they were cutting down working opportunities 
for cart loaders, who could only be hired as the 
teamsters hauled sufficient loads to keep them busy. 

Value of Knowledge Gained an Incentive to a Few 
Only. — Extra knowledge, and the better method of 
attack learned under Scientific Management, are re- 
wards that will be appreciated by those of superior 



INCENTIVES 305 

intelligence only. They will, in a way, be appreci- 
ated by all, because it will be realized that, through 
what is learned, more pay or promotion is received, 
but the fact that this extra knowledge, and better 
method of attack, will enable one to do better in all 
lines, not simply in the line at which one is working, 
and will render one's life more full and rich, will be 
appreciated only by those of a wide experience. 

Acquired Professional Standing a Powerful Incen- 
tive. — Just as the success of the worker under Scien- 
tific Management assures such admiration by his 
fellow-workers as will serve as an incentive toward 
further success, so the professional standing attained 
by success in Scientific Management acts as an in- 
centive to those in more responsible positions. 

As soon as it is recognized that Scientific Manage- 
ment furnishes the only real measure of efficiency, 
its close relationship to professional standing will be 
recognized, and the reward which it can offer in this 
line will be more fully appreciated. 

Punishments Negative and Positive. — Punishments 
may be first negative, that is, simply a loss of promised 
rewards. Such punishments, especially in cases of 
men who have once had the reward, usually will act 
as the necessary stimulus to further activity. Pun- 
ishments may also be positive, such things as fines, 
assignment to less pleasant work, or as a last resort, 
discharge. 

Fines Never Accrue to the Management. — Fines 
have been a most successful mode of punishment 
under Scientific Management. Under many of the 
old forms of management, the fines were turned back 



3 o6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

to the management itself, thus raising a spirit of 
animosity in the men, who felt that everything that 
they suffered was a gain to those over them. Under 
Scientific Management all fines are used in some way 
for the benefit of the men themselves. All fines 
should be used for some benefit fund, or turned into 
the insurance fund. The fines, as has been said, are 
determined solely by the disciplinarian, who is dis- 
interested in the disposition of the funds thus col- 
lected. As the fines do not in any way benefit the 
management, and in fact rather hurt the management 
in that the men who pay them, no matter where they 
are applied, must feel more or less discouraged, it is, 
naturally, for the benefit of the management that there 
shall be as few fines as possible. Both management 
and men realize this, which leads to industrial peace, 
and also leads the managers, the functional fore- 
men, and in fact every one, to eliminate the necessity 
and cause for fines to as great an extent as is possible. 

Assignment to Less Pleasant Work Effective Pun- 
ishment. — Assignment to less pleasant work is a 
very effective form of discipline. It has many ad- 
vantages which do not show on the surface. The 
man may not really get a cut in pay, though his work 
be changed, and thus the damage he receives is in 
no wise to his purse, but simply to his feeling of 
pride. In the meantime, he is gaining a wider ex- 
perience of the business, so that even the worst dis- 
advantage has its bright side. 

Discharge To Be Avoided Wherever Possible. — 
Discharge is, of course, available under Scientific 
Management, as under all other forms, but it is really 



INCENTIVES 307 

less used under Scientific Management than under 
any other sort, because if a man is possibly available, 
and in any way trained, it is better to do almost any- 
thing to teach him, to assign him to different work, 
to try and find his possibilities, than to let him go, 
and have all that teaching wasted as far as the organ- 
ization which has taught it is concerned. 

Discharge a Grave Injury to a Worker. — More- 
over, Scientific Management realizes that discharge 
may be a grave injury to a worker. As Mr. James 
M. Dodge, who has been most successful in Scientific 
Management and is noted for his good work for his 
fellow-men, eloquently pleads, in a paper on " The 
Spirit in Which Scientific Management Should Be 
Approached," given before the Conference on Scien- 
tific Management at Dartmouth College, October, 
1911 : 

" It is a serious thing for a worker who has located 
his home within reasonable proximity to his place 
of employment and with proper regard for the school- 
ing of his children, to have to seek other employment 
and readjust his home affairs, with a loss of time and 
wages. Proper management takes account not only 
of this fact, but also of the fact that there is a distinct 
loss to the employer when an old and experienced 
employe is replaced by a new man, who must be 
educated in the methods of the establishment. An 
old employe has, in his experience, a potential value 
that should not be lightly disregarded, and there 
should be in case of dismissal the soundest of rea- 
sons, in which personal prejudice or temporary men- 
tal condition of the foreman should play no part. 



308 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

" Constant changing of employes is not wholesome 
for any establishment, and the sudden discovery by 
a foreman that a man who has been employed for a 
year or more is ' no good ' is often a reflection on 
the foreman, and more often still, is wholly untrue. 
All working men, unless they develop intemperate 
or dishonest habits, have desirable value in them, and 
the conserving and increasing of their value is a duty 
which should be assumed by their superiors." 

Punishment Can Never Be Entirely Abolished. — 
It might be asked why punishments are needed at 
all under this system; that is, why positive punish- 
ments are needed. Why not merely a lack of reward 
for the slight offenses, and a discharge if it gets too 
bad? It must be remembered, however, that the pun- 
ishments are needed to insure a proper appreciation of 
the reward. If there is no negative side, the beauty 
of the reward will never be realized; the man who 
has once suffered by having his pay cut for something 
which he has done wrong, will be more than ready 
to keep up to the standard. In the second place, un- 
less individuals are punished, the rights of other 
individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. 
When it is considered that under Scientific Manage- 
ment the man who gives the punishment is the dis- 
interested disciplinarian, that the punishment is 
made exactly appropriate to the offense, and that no 
advantage from it comes to any one except the men 
themselves, it can be understood that the psycho- 
logical basis is such as to make a punishment rather 
an incentive than a detriment. 

Direct Incentives Numerous and Powerful. — As 



INCENTIVES 309 

for the direct incentives, these are so many that it is 
possible to enumerate only a few. For example — 

This may be simply a result of love of speed, love of 
play, or love of activity, or it may be, in the case 
of a man running a machine, not so much for the love 
of the activity as for a love of seeing things progress 
rapidly. There is a love of contest which has been 
thoroughly discussed under " Athletic Contests," 
which results in racing, and in all the pleasures of 
competition. 

Racing Directed Under Scientific Management. — 
The psychology of the race under Scientific Manage- 
ment is most interesting. The race is not a device 
of Scientific Management to speed up the worker, 
any speed that would be demanded by Scientific Man- 
agement beyond the task-speed would be an unscien- 
tific thing. On the other hand, it is not the scope of 
Scientific Management to bar out any contests which 
would not be for the ultimate harm of the workers. 
Such interference would hamper individuality; would 
make the workers feel that they were restricted and 
held down. While the workers are, under Scientific 
Management, supposed to be under the supervision 
of some one who can see that the work is only such 
as they can do and continuously thrive, any such in- 
terference as, for example, stopping a harmless race, 
would at once make them feel that their individual 
initiative was absolutely destroyed. It is not the de- 
sire of Scientific Management to do anything of that 
sort, but rather to use every possible means to make 
the worker feel that his initiative is being conserved. 

All " Native Reactions " Act as Incentives. — Pride, 



310 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

self-confidence, pugnacity, — all the " native reac- 
tions " utilized by teaching serve as direct incentives. 

Results o£ Incentives to the Work. — All incentives 
in every form of management, tend, from their very 
nature, to increase output. When Scientific Man- 
agement is introduced, there is selection of such in- 
centives as will produce greatest amount of specified 
output, and the results can be predicted. 

Results of Incentives to the Worker. — Under Tra- 
ditional Management the incentives are usually such 
that the worker is likely to overwork himself if he 
allows himself to be driven by the incentive. This 
results in bodily exhaustion. So, also, the anxiety 
that accompanies an unstandardized incentive leads 
to mental exhaustion. With the introduction of 
Transitory Management, danger from both these 
types of exhaustion is removed. The incentive is so 
modified that it is instantly subject to judgment as 
to its ultimate value. 

Scientific Management makes the incentives 
stronger than they are under any other type, partly 
by removing sources of worry, waste and hesitation, 
partly by determining the ratio of incentive to out- 
put. The worker under such incentives gains in 
bodily and mental poise and security. 



CHAPTER X 
WELFARE 

Definition of Welfare. — " Welfare " means " a state 
or condition of doing well; prosperous or satisfactory 
course or relation; exemption from evil;" in other 
words, well-being. This is the primary meaning of 
the word. But, to-day, it is used so often as an ad- 
jective, to describe work which is being attempted 
for the good of industrial workers, that any use of the 
word welfare has that fringe of meaning to it. 

" Welfare " Here Includes Two Meanings. — In the 
discussion of welfare in this chapter, both meanings 
of the word will be included. " Welfare " under each 
form of management will be discussed, first, as mean- 
ing the outcome to the men of the type of manage- 
ment itself; and second, as discussing the sort of wel- 
fare work which is used under that form of manage- 
ment. 

Discussion of First Answers. Three Questions. — 
A discussion of welfare as the result of work divides 
itself naturally into three parts, or three questions: 

What is the effect upon the physical life ? 

What is the effect upon the mental life? 

What is the effect upon the moral life ? 

Under Traditional Management No Physical Im- 
provement. — The indefiniteness of Traditional Man- 

3" 



312 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

agement manifests itself again in this discussion, it 
being almost impossible to make any general state- 
ment which could not be controverted by particular 
examples; but it is safe to say that in general, under 
Traditional Management, there is not a definite phy- 
sical improvement in the average worker. In the 
first place, there is no provision for regularity in the 
work. The planning not being done ahead, the man 
has absolutely no way of knowing exactly what he 
will be called upon to do. There being no measure 
of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he 
can go to work the second part of the day, say, with 
anything like the efficiency with which he could go 
to work in the first part of the day. There being no 
standard, the amount of work which he can turn out 
must vary according as the tools, machinery and 
equipment are in proper condition, and the material 
supplies his needs. 

No Good Habits Necessarily Formed. — In the 
second place, under Traditional Management there 
are no excellent habits necessarily formed. The man 
is left to do fairly as he pleases, if only the general 
outcome be considered sufficient by those over him. 
There may be a physical development on his part, 
if the work be of a kind which can develop him, or 
which he likes to such an extent that he is willing to 
do enough of it to develop him physically; this liking 
may come through the play element, or through the 
love of work, or through the love of contest, or 
through some other desire for activity, but it is not 
provided for scientifically, and the outcome cannot be 
exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional Man- 



WELFARE 313 

agement there is no way of knowing that good health 
and increased strength will result from the work, and 
we know that in many cases poor health and depleted 
strength have been the outcome of the work. We 
may say then fairly, as far as physical improvement 
is concerned that, though it might be the outcome of 
Traditional Management, it was rather in spite of 
Traditional Management, in the sense at least that the 
management had nothing to do with it, and had ab- 
solutely no way of providing for it. The moment 
that it was provided for in any systematic way, the 
Traditional Management vanished. 

No Directed Mental Development. — Second, men- 
tal development. Here, again, there being no fixed 
habits, no specially trained habit of attention, no 
standard, there was no way of knowing that the man's 
mind was improving. Naturally, all minds improve 
merely with experience. Experience must be gath- 
ered in, and must be embodied into judgment. There 
is absolutely no way of estimating what the average 
need in this line would be, it varies so much with the 
temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be 
a thing that the man himself was responsible for, and 
not the management, certainly not the management 
in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an in- 
dividual worker might be largely responsible for im- 
proving him intellectually. If this were so, it would 
be because of the temperament of the over-man, or 
because of his friendly desire to impart a mental 
stimulus; seldom, if ever, because the management 
provided for its being imparted. Thus, there was 
absolutely no way of predicting that wider or deeper 



3 i4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

interest, or that increased mental capacity, would 
take place. 

Moral Development Doubtful. — As for moral de- 
velopment, in the average Traditional Management it 
was not only not provided for, but rather doubtful. 
A man had very little chance to develop real, per- 
sonal responsibilities, in that there was always some 
one over him who was watching him, who disciplined 
him and corrected him, who handed in the reports 
for him, with the result that he was in a very slight 
sense a free agent. Only men higher up, the fore- 
men and the superintendents could obtain real de- 
velopment from personal responsibilities. Neither 
was there much development of responsibility for 
others, in the sense of being responsible for personal 
development of others. Having no accurate stand- 
ards to judge by, there was little or no possibility 
of appreciation of the relative standing of the men, 
either by the individual of himself, or by others of 
his ability. The man could be admired for his 
strength, or his skill, but not for his real efficiency, 
as measured in any satisfactory way. The manage- 
ment taught self-control in the most rudimentary way, 
or not at all. There was no distinct goal for the aver- 
age man, neither was there any distinct way to ar- 
rive at such a goal ; it was simply a case, with the 
man lower down, of making good for any one day 
and getting that day's pay. In the more enlightened 
forms of Traditional Management, a chance for pro- 
motion was always fairly sure, but the moment that 
the line of promotion became assured, we may say 
that Traditional Management had really ceased, and 



WELFARE 315 

some form of Transitory Management was in opera- 
tion. 

" Square Deal " Lacking. — Perhaps the worst lack 
under Traditional Management is the lack of the 
" square deal." In the first place, even the most ef- 
ficient worker under this form of management was 
not sure of his place. This not only meant worry 
on his part, which distracted his attention from what 
he did, but meant a wrong attitude all along the line. 
He had absolutely no way of knowing that, even 
though he did his best, the man over him, in anger, or 
because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not 
discharge him, put him in a lower position. So also 
the custom of spying, the only sort of inspection 
recognized under Traditional Management of the 
most elementary form, led to a feeling on the men's 
part that they were being constantly watched on the 
sly, and to an inability to concentrate. This brought 
about an inability to feel really honest, for being con- 
stantly under suspicion is enough to poison even one's 
own opinion of one's integrity. Again, being at the 
beck and call of a prejudiced foreman who was all- 
powerful, and having no assured protection from the 
whims of such a man, the worker was obliged, prac- 
tically for self-protection, to try to conciliate the fore- 
men by methods of assuming merits that are obvious, 
on the surface. He ingratiates himself in the favor 
of the foreman in that way best adapted to the pe- 
culiarities of the character of the foreman, sometimes 
joining societies, or the church of the foreman, some- 
times helping him elect some political candidate or 
relative; at other times, by the more direct method 



316 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of buying drinks, or taking up a subscription for pre- 
senting the foreman with a gold watch, " in apprecia- 
tion of his fairness to all;" sometimes by consistently 
losing at cards or other games of chance. When it 
is considered that this same foreman was probably, 
at the time, enjoying a brutal feeling of power, it is 
no wonder that no sense of confidence of the " square 
deal " could develop. There are countless ways that 
the brutal enjoyment of power could be exercised by 
the man in a foreman's position. As has already been 
said, some men prefer promotion to a position of 
power more than anything else. Nearly all desire 
promotion to power for the extra money that it brings, 
and occasionally, a man will be found who loves the 
power, although unconsciously, for the pleasure he 
obtains in lording over other human beings. This 
quality is present more or less in all human beings. 
It is particularly strong in the savage, who likes to 
torture captured human beings and animals, and per- 
haps the greatest test for high qualifications of char- 
acter and gentleness is that of having power over 
other human beings without unnecessarily accenting 
the difference in the situation. Under Military Man- 
agement, there is practically no limit to this power, 
the management being satisfied if the foreman gets 
the work out of the men, and the men having practi- 
cally no one to appeal to, and being obliged to receive 
their punishment always from the hands of a preju- 
diced party. 

Little Possibility of Development of Will. — Being 
under such influence as this, there is little or no pos- 
sibility of the development of an intelligent will. The 



WELFARE 



3i7 



" will to do " becomes stunted, unless the pay is large 
enough to lead the man to be willing to undergo 
abuses in order to get the money. There is nothing, 
moreover, in the aspect of the management itself 
to lead the man to have a feeling of confidence either 
in himself, or in the management, and to have that 
moral poise which will make him wish to advance. 

Real Capacity Not Increased. — With the likelihood 
of suspicion, hate and jealousy arising, and with con- 
stant preparations for conflict, of which the average 
union and employers' association is the embodiment, 
naturally, real capacity is not increased, but is rather 
decreased, under this form of management, and we 
may ascribe this to three faults : 

First, to lack of recognition of individuality, — men 
are handled mostly as gangs, and personality is sunk. 

Second, to lack of standardization, and to lack of 
time study, that fundamental of all standardization, 
which leads to absolute inability to make a measured, 
and therefore scientific judgment, and 

Third, to the lack of teaching; to the lack of all con- 
structiveness. 

These three lacks, then, constitute a strong reason 
why Traditional Management does not add to the 
welfare of the men. 

Little Systematized Welfare Work Under Tradi- 
tional Management. — As for welfare work, — that is, 
work which the employers themselves plan to bene- 
fit the men, if under such work be included timely 
impulses of the management for the men, and the car- 
rying of these out in a more or less systematic way, 
it will be true to say that such welfare work has ex- 



3 i8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

isted in all times, and under all forms of management. 
The kind-hearted man will show his kind heart wher- 
ever he is, but it is likewise true to say that little 
systematic beneficial work is done under what we have 
defined as Traditional Management. 

Definite Statements as to Welfare Under Trans- 
itory Management Difficult To Make. — It is almost 
impossible to give any statement as to the general 
welfare of workers under Transitory Management, 
because, from the very nature of the case, Transitory 
Management is constantly changing. In the discus- 
sion of the various chapters, and in showing how in- 
dividuality, functionalization, measurement, and so 
on, were introduced, and the psychological effect upon 
the men of their being introduced, welfare was more 
or less unsystematically considered. In turning to 
the discussion under Scientific Management and show- 
ing how welfare is the result of Scientific Manage- 
ment and is incorporated in it, much as to its growth 
will be included. 

Welfare Work Under Transitory Management Is 
Usually Commendable. — As to the welfare work 
under Transitory Management, much could be said, 
and much has been said and written. Typical Wel- 
fare Work under Transitory Management deserves 
nothing but praise. It is the result of the dedica- 
tion of many beautiful lives to a beautiful cause. It 
consists of such work as building rest rooms for the 
employes, in providing for amusements, in providing 
for better working conditions, in helping to better 
living conditions, in providing for some sort of a wel- 
fare worker who can talk with the employes and bene- 



WELFARE 319 

fit them in every way, including being their repre- 
sentative in speaking with the management. 

An Underlying Flaw Is Apparent. — There can be 
no doubt that an enormous quantity of good has been 
done by this welfare work, both positively, to the 
employes themselves, and indirectly, to the manage- 
ment, through fostering a kinder feeling. There is, 
however, a flaw to be found in the underlying prin- 
ciples of this welfare work as introduced in Transitory 
Management, and that is that it takes on more or less 
the aspect of a charity, and is so regarded both by 
the employes and by the employer. The employer, 
naturally, prides himself more or less upon doing 
something which is good, and the employe naturally 
resents more or less having something given to 
him as a sort of charity which he feels his by 
right. 

Its Effect Is Detrimental. — The psychological sig- 
nificance of this is very great. The employer, feel- 
ing that he has bestowed a gift, is, naturally, rather 
chagrined to find it is received either as a right, or 
with a feeling of resentment. Therefore, he is often 
led to decrease what he might otherwise do, for it is 
only an unusual and a very high type of mind that 
can be satisfied simply with the doing of the good 
act, without the return of gratitude. On the other 
hand, the employe, if he be a man of pride, may re- 
sent charity even in such a general form as this, and 
may, with an element of Tightness, prefer that the 
money to be expended be put into his pay envelope, 
instead. If it is simply a case of better working con- 
ditions, something that improves him as an efficient 



32o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

worker for the management, he will feel that this 
welfare work is in no sense something which he re- 
ceives as a gift, but rather something which is his 
right, and which benefits the employer exactly as 
much, if not more than it benefits him. 

Welfare Work Not Self -perpetuating. — Another 
fault which can be found with the actual administra- 
tion of the welfare work, is the fact that it often dis- 
regards one of the fundamental principles of Scien- 
tific Management, in that the welfare workers them- 
selve do not train enough people to follow in their 
footsteps, and thus make welfare self-perpetuating. 

In one case which the writer has in mind, a noble 
woman is devoting her life to the welfare of a body 
of employes in an industry which greatly requires such 
work. The work which she is doing is undoubtedly 
benefiting these people in every aspect, not only of 
their business but of their home lives, but it is also 
true that should she be obliged to give up the work, 
or be suddenly called away, the work would practi- 
cally fall to pieces. It is built up upon her personality, 
and, wonderful as it is, its basis must be recognized 
as unscientific and temporary. 

Scientific Provision for Welfare Under Scientific 
Management. — Under Scientific Management gen- 
eral welfare is provided for by: — 

The effect that the work has on physical improve- 
ment. This we shall discuss under three head- 
ings— 

i. the regularity of the work. 

2. habits. 

3. physical development. 



WELFARE 32i 

As for the regularity of the work — we have 

(a) The apportionment of the work and the rest. 
Under Scientific Management, work time 
and rest time are scientifically apportioned. 
This means that the man is able to come to 
each task with the same amount of strength, 
and that from his work he gains habits of 
regularity. 

(b) The laying out of the work. The standards 
upon which the instruction cards are based, 
and the method of preparing them, assure 
regularity. 

(c) The manner of performing the work. Every 
time that identical work is done, it is done in 
an identical manner. 

The resulting regularity has an excellent effect upon 
the physical welfare of the worker. 
2. Habits, under Scientific Management, 

(a) are prescribed by standards. The various 
physical habits of the man, the motions that 
are used, having all been timed and then 
standardized, the worker acquires physical 
habits that are fixed. 

(b) are taught; * therefore they are not remote 
but come actually and promptly into the con- 
sciousness and into the action of the worker. 

(c) are retained, because they are standard 
habits and because the rewards which are 
given for using them make it an object to 
the worker to retain them. 

(d) Are reenforced by individuality and func- 

1 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 115, p. 121. 



322 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

tionalization; that is to say, the worker is 
considered as an individual, and his possi- 
bilities are studied, before he is put into the 
work; therefore, his own individuality and 
his own particular function naturally reen- 
force those habits which he is taught to form. 
These habits, being scientifically derived, 
add to physical improvement. 
3. Physical development 

(a) is fostered through the play element, has 
been scientifically studied, and is utilized 
as far as possible ; the same is true of the 
love of work, which is reenforced by the fact 
that the man has been placed where he will 
have the most love for his work. 

(b) is insured by the love of contest, which is 
provided for not only by contest with others, 
but by the constant contest of the worker 
with his own previous records. When he 
does exceed these records he utilizes powers 
which it is for his good physically, as well 
as otherwise, to utilize. 

Results of Physical Improvement. — This regular- 
ity, good habits, and physical development, result in 
good health, increased strength and a better appear- 
ance. To these three results all scientific managers 
testify. An excellent example of this is found in Mr. 
Gantt's " Work, Wages and Profits," where the in- 
creased health, the better color and the better general 
appearance of the workers under Scientific Manage- 
ment is commented on as well as the fact that they 



WELFARE 323 

are inspired by their habits to dress themselves better 
and in every way to become of a higher type. 2 

Mental Development. — Welfare under Scientific 
Management is provided for by Mental Development. 
This we may discuss under habits, and under general 
mental development. 

1. As for habits we must consider 

(a) Habits of attention. Under Scientific Man- 
agement, as we have shown, attention must 
become a habit. Only when it does become 
a habit, can the work required be properly 
performed, and the reward received. As 
only those who show themselves capable of 
really receiving the reward are considered 
to be properly placed, ultimately all who re- 
main at work under Scientific Management 
must attain this habit of attention. 

(b) Habit of method of attack. This not only 
enables the worker to do the things that he 
is assigned satisfactorily, but also has the 
broadening effect of teaching him how to 
do other things, i. e., showing him the 
" how " of doing things, and giving him 
standards which are the outcome of mental 
habits, and by which he learns to measure. 

2. General mental development is provided for by 
the experience which the worker gets not only in the 
general way in which all who work must give experi- 
ence, but in the set way provided for by Scientific 
Management. This is so presented to the worker 

2 Pp. 171-172. 



324 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

that it becomes actually usable at once. This not only 
allows him to judge others, but provides for self- 
knowledge, which is one of the most valuable of all 
of the outcomes of Scientific Management. He be- 
comes mentally capable of estimating his own powers 
and predicting what he himself is capable of doing. 
The outcome of this mental development is 

(a) wider interest. 

(b) deeper interest. 

(c) increased mental capabilities. 

The better method of attack would necessarily pro- 
vide for wider interest. The fact that any subject 
taken up is in its ultimate final unit form, would cer- 
tainly lead to deeper interest ; and the exercise of these 
two faculties leads to increased mental capabilities. 

Moral Development. — Moral development under 
Scientific Management results from the provisions 
made for cultivating — 

i. personal responsibility. 

2. responsibility for others. 

3. appreciation of standing. 

4. self-control. 

5. " squareness." 

1. Personal responsibility is developed by 

(a) Individual recognition. When the worker 
was considered merely as one of a gang, it 
was very easy for him to shift responsibili- 
ties upon others. When he knows that he 
is regarded by the management, and by his 
mates, as an individual, that what he does 
will show up in an individual record, and will 
receive individual reward or punishment, 



WELFARE 325 

necessarily personal responsibility is devel- 
oped. 
Moreover, this individual recognition is brought to 
his mind by his being expected to fill out his own in- 
struction card. In this way, his personal responsi- 
bility is specifically brought home to him. 

(b) The appreciation which comes under Scien- 
tific Management. This appreciation takes 
the form of reward and promotion, and of the 
regard of his fellow-workers; therefore, be- 
ing a growing thing, as it is under Scientific 
Management, it insures that his personal re- 
sponsibility shall also be a growing thing, 
and become greater the longer he works un- 
der Scientific Management. 
2. Responsibility for others is provided for by the 
inter-relation of all functions. It is not necessary 
that all workers under Scientific Management should 
understand all about it. However, many do under- 
stand, and the more that they do understand, the more 
they realize that everybody working under Scientific 
Management is more or less dependent upon every- 
body else. Every worker must feel this, more or 
less, when he realizes that there are eight functional 
bosses over him, who are closely related to him, on 
whom he is dependent, and who are more or less 
dependent upon him. The very fact that the plan- 
ning is separated from the performing, means that 
more men are directly interested in any one piece of 
work; in fact, that every individual piece of work 
that is done is in some way a bond between a great 
number of men, some of whom are planning and some 



326 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

of whom are performing it. This responsibility for 
others is made even more close in the dependent 
bonuses which are a part of Scientific Management, 
a man's pay being dependent upon the work of those 
who are working under him. Certainly, nothing 
could bring the fact more closely to the attention 
of each and every worker under this system, than 
associating it with the pay envelope. 

3. Appreciation of standing is fostered by 

(a) individual records. Through these the indi- 
vidual himself knows what he has done, his 
fellows know, and the management knows. 

(b) comparative records, which show even those 
who might not make the comparison, ex- 
actly how each worker stands, with relation 
to his mates, or with relation to his past 
records. 

This appreciation of standing is well exemplified 
in the happy phrasing of Mr. Gantt — " There is in 
every workroom a fashion, or habit of work, and the 
new worker follows that fashion, for it isn't respect- 
able not to. The man or woman who ignores fashion 
does not get much pleasure from associating with 
those that follow it, and the new member conse- 
quently tries to fall in with the sentiment of the 
community. 3 Our chart shows that the stronger the 
sentiment in favor of industry is, the harder the new 
member tries and the sooner he succeeds." 

4. Self-control is developed by 

(a) the habits of inhibition fostered by Scien- 
tific Management, — that is to say, when the 
3 H. L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Pro/its, pp. 154-155. 



WELFARE 327 

right habits are formed, necessarily many- 
wrong habits are eliminated. It becomes a 
part of Scientific Management to inhibit all 
inattention and wrong habits, and to con- 
centrate upon the things desired. This is 
further aided by 
(b) the distinct goal and the distinct task which 
Scientific Management gives, which allow 
the man to hold himself well in control, to 
keep his poise and to advance steadily. 
5. " Squareness." This squareness is exemplified 
first of all by the attitude of the management. It 
provides, in every way, that the men are given a 
" square deal," in that the tasks assigned are of the 
proper size, and that the reward that is given is of 
the proper dimensions, and is assured. This has al- 
ready been shown to be exemplified in many char- 
acteristics of Scientific Management, and more espe- 
cially in the inspection and in the disciplining. 

Moral Development Results in Contentment, 
Brotherhood and the " Will To Do."— The three re- 
sults of this moral development are 

1. contentment 

2. brotherhood 

3. a " will to do." 

1. Contentment is the outgrowth of the personal 
responsibility, the appreciation of standing, and the 
general " squareness " of the entire plan of Scientific 
Management. 

2. The idea of brotherhood is fostered particularly 
through the responsibility for others, through the 
feeling that grows up that each man is dependent 



328 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

upon all others, and that it is necessary for every man 
to train up another man to take his place before he 
can be advanced. Thus it comes about that the old 
caste life, which so often grew up under Traditional 
Management, becomes abolished, and there ensues a 
feeling that it is possible for any man to grow up into 
any other man's place. The tug-of-war attitude of 
the management and men is transformed into the atti- 
tude of a band of soldiers scaling a wall. Not only 
is the worker pulled up, but he is also forced up 
from the bottom. 4 

3. The " will to do " is so fostered by Scientific 
Management that not only is the worker given every 
incentive, but he, personally, becomes inspired with 
this great desire for activity, which is after all the 
best and finest thing that any system of work can 
give to him. 

Interrelation of Physical, Mental and Moral De- 
velopment. — As to the interrelation of physical, 
mental and moral development, it must never be for- 
gotten that the mind and the body must be studied 
together, 5 and that this is particularly true in con- 
sidering the mind in management. 6 For the best 
results of the mind, the body must be cared for, and 
provided for, fully as much as must the mind, or the 
best results from the mind will not, and cannot, be 
obtained. 

4 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 170, Harper Ed., p. 76. 

5 William James, Psychology, Advanced Course, Vol. II, p. 372. 

• See remarkable work of Dr. A. Imbert, Evaluation de la 
Capacite de Travail d'un Ouvrier Avant et Apres un Accident; Les 
Methodes du Laboratoire appliquees a I'Etude directe et pratique 
des Questions ouvrier es. 



WELFARE 329 

Successful management must consider the results of 
all mental states upon the health, happiness and pros- 
perity of the worker, and the quality, quantity and cost 
of the output. That is to say, unless the mind is 
kept in the right state, with the elimination of worry, 
the body cannot do its best work, and, in the same 
way, unless the body is kept up to the proper stand- 
ard, the mind cannot develop. Therefore, a really 
good system of management must consider not only 
these things separately, but in their interrelation, — 
and this Scientific Management does. 

Result of Physical, Mental and Moral Development 
Is Increased Capacity. — The ultimate result of all 
this physical improvement, mental development and 
moral development is increased capacity, increased 
capacity not only for work, but for health, and for 
life in general. 

Welfare Work an Integral Part of Scientific Man- 
agement. — Strictly speaking, under Scientific Man- 
agement, there should be no necessity for a special 
department of Welfare Work. It should be so in- 
corporated in Scientific Management that it is not to 
be distinguished. Here the men are looked out for 
in such a way under the operation of Scientific Man- 
agement itself that there is no necessity for a special 
welfare worker. This is not to say that the value of 
personality will disappear under Scientific Manage- 
ment, and that it may not be necessary in some cases 
to provide for nurses, for physical directors, and for 
advisers. It will, however, be understood that the 
entire footing of these people is changed under Scien- 
tific Management. It is realized under Scientific 



330 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

Management that these people, and their work, bene- 
fit the employers as much as the employes. They 
must go on the regular payroll as a part of the effi- 
ciency equipment. The workers must understand 
that there is absolutely no feeling of charity, or of 
gift, in having them; that they add to the perfectness 
of the entire establishment. 

SUMMARY 

Results of Welfare to the Work. — Because of Wel- 
fare Work, of whatever type, more and better work 
is accomplished, with only such expenditure of effort 
as is beneficial to the worker. Not only does the 
amount of work done increase, but it also tends to 
become constant, after it has reached its standard 
expected volume. 

Result of Welfare Work to the Worker. — This de- 
scription of welfare of the men under Scientific Man- 
agement, in every sense of the word welfare, has 
been very poor and incomplete if from it the reader 
has not deduced the fact that Scientific Management 
enables the worker not only to lead a fuller life in 
his work, but also outside his work; that it furnishes 
him hours enough free from the work to develop such 
things as the work cannot develop; that it furnishes 
him with health and interest enough to go into his 
leisure hours with a power to develop himself there; 
that it furnishes him with a broader outlook, and, 
best of all, with a capacity of judging for himself 
what he needs most to get. In other words, if Scien- 
tific Management is what it claims to be, it leads to 
the development of a fuller life in every sense of the 



WELFARE 331 

word, enabling the man to become a better individual 
in himself, and a better member of his community. 
If it does not do this it is not truly Scientific Manage- 
ment. Miss Edith Wyatt has said, very beautifully, 
at the close of her book, " Making Both Ends 
Meet " 7 : " No finer dream was ever dreamed than 
that the industry by which the nation lives, should 
be so managed as to secure for the men and women 
engaged in it their real prosperity, their best use of 
their highest powers. How far Scientific Manage- 
ment will go toward realizing the magnificent dream 
in the future, will be determined by the greatness of 
spirit and the executive genius with which its prin- 
ciples are sustained by all the people interested in 
its inauguration, the employers, the workers and the 
engineers." 

We wish to modify the word " dream " to the word 
" plan." The plan of Scientific Management is right, 
and, as Miss Wyatt says, is but waiting for us to 
fulfill the details that are laid out before us. 

Conclusion. — The results thus far attained by 
Scientific Management justify a prediction as to its 
future. It will accomplish two great works. 

1. It will educate the worker to the point where 
workers will be fitted to work, and to live. 

2. It will aid the cause of Industrial Peace. 

It will put the great power of knowledge into every 
man's hands. This it must do, as it is founded on co- 
operation, and this cooperation demands that all shall 
know and shall be taught. 

With this knowledge will come ability to under- 

7 Clark and Wyatt, Macmillan, pp. 269-270. 



332 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT 

stand the rights of others as well as one's own. 
" To know all is to pardon all." 

Necessity for cooperation, and trained minds: — 
These two can but lead to elimination of that most 
wasteful of all warfare — Industrial Warfare. Such 
will be the future of Scientific Management, — 
whether it win universal approval, universal disap- 
proval, or half-hearted advocacy to-day. 

When the day shall come that the ultimate benefits 
of Scientific Management are realized and enjoyed, 
depends on both the managers and the workers of the 
country; but, in the last analysis, the greatest power 
towards hastening the day lies in the hands of the 
workers. 

To them Scientific Management would desire to 
appeal as a road up and out from industrial monotony 
and industrial turmoil. There are many roads that 
lead to progress. This road leads straightest and 
surest, — and we can but hope that the workers of 
all lands, and of our land in particular, will not wait 
till necessity drives, but will lead the way to that 
true " Brotherhood " which may some day come to 
be. 



Index 



Index 



Accidents, prevention by meas- 
uring devices, 114. 
prevention by standardization, 
180. 
"All Round" Men utilized by 

scientific management, 87. 
Ambition, use of, 258. 
American Journal of Physiolo- 
gy— 1904, in. 
Analysis, amount governed by 
nature of work, 126. 
definition of, 123. 
field of psychology in, 128. 
training should be provided in 

schools, 129. 
worker should understand 
process, 129. 
Analysis and Synthesis, cost the 
determining factor, 127. 
effect on work of, 138. 
effect on worker of, 138. 
place in traditional manage- 
ment, 124. 
place in transitory manage- 
ment, 125. 
under scientific management, 

125. 
use by psychology, 123. 
Analysist, duties of, 126. 

qualifications of, 128. 
Animals, standardization of 

work with, 170. 
Appreciation, under scientific 

management, 325. 
Apprentices, teaching of, 262. 
Approbation, as an incentive, 

304. 
Athletic Contests, description of, 
34- 

335 



Attention, forming habit of, 240. 
gaining of, 178. 
held by bulletin board, 241. 
relation to fatigue, 160. 
relation to instruction card, 

241. 
relation to placing of workers, 
161. 

Babbage, Charles — "Economy of 
Manufacturers," 2, 76, 179. 

Barth, C. G.— "A. S. M. E. 
Paper 1010," 78, 174. 

Blan, L. B. — "Special Study of 
Incidence of Retardation," 
29. 

Body, relation of mind to, 48, 
160. 

Bonus, definition of, 288. 
investigation of loss of, 301. 

Brashear, John, 81. 

Breakdowns, prevented by meas- 
uring devices, 114. 

Brotherhood, coming of, 332. 
under scientific management, 
328. 

Bulletin Board, aids attention, 
241. 
benefit of, 194. 

Calkins, M. W.— "A First Book 
in Psychology," 22, 53, 171. 
Card, instruction, 44. 
Capacity, increasing of, 317, 329. 
Class, relation to individual, 49. 
Clothing, in sports, 167. 

standards, 166. 
Constructiveness, benefits of, 
26b. 



336 



INDEX 



Contentment, under scientific 
management, 327. 

Cooke, M. L— "Bulletin No. 5 
Carnegie Foundation," 9, 86, 
94, 139- 

Cooperation, necessity for, 102, 
265, 332. 
relation to incentives, 304. 

Cost, determining factor in 
analysis and synthesis, 127. 

Curiosity, under scientific man- 
agement, 255. 

Dana, R. T. — "Handbook of 
Steam Shovel Work," ill. 

Dana and Saunders — "Rock 
Drilling," 139. 

Day, Charles-"Industrial Plants," 
66. 

Day Work, description of, 289. 

Decision of choice, elimination 
of, 163. 

Demonstration, value of, 227. 

Development, mental, 313, 323. 
moral, 324. 

Devices, standard, need for, 164. 

Differential Bonus, description 
of, 300. 

Differential Rate Piece, descrip- 
tion of, 298. 

Discharge, avoidance of, 306. 

Disciplinarian, duties of, 68, 70. 

Disciplining, psychology of, 71. 
under scientific management, 

70, 72. 
under traditional management, 
69. 

Dodge, James M., 135. 

"Discussion to Paper 1 119 A. 
S. M. E.," 131. 

Driver management, 10. 

Efficiency, controlling factor in, 

3- 

measured by time and mo- 
tion study, 115. 
securing of, 3. 
Emulation, use of, 258. 
"Engineering," London, Sept. 
1 5, 191 1> 136. 



Equipment, measured by motion 
study and time study, 108. 
standardization of, 163. 
Errors, checking of, 112. 
Exception principle, records 
made on, 187. 
value of, 188. 

Fatigue, eliminating of, 159. 
importance of, 233. 
influence of distracted atten- 
tion on, 160. 
relation to standards, 168. 
Fear, treatment of, 252. 
Fines, use of, 305. 
First class man, definition of, 

98, 152. 
Foreman, duties of, 55. 
duties under scientific man- 
agement, 64. 
qualifications of, 54, 55. 
Foremanship, functionalized, 63. 
Functional foreman, as teacher, 

224. 
Functional foremanship, teach- 
ing feature of, 63, 64. 
Functionalization, definition of, 
52. 
effect upon work of, 83. 
effect upon worker of, 85. 
under scientific management, 

61, 81. 
under traditional management, 

54- 
under transitory management, 

61. 
use by psychology, 53. 
Functions, basis of division into, 
65- 
place of operation of, 66. 

Gain-sharing, definition of, 293. 

objections to, 294. 
Gang boss, duties of, 73. 
Gang instruction card, descrip- 
tion of, 45, 175. 
Gantt, H. L.— "A. S. M. E. 
Paper 928," 95, 181. 
"A. S. M. E. Paper No. 1002," 
55- 



INDEX 



337 



"Work, Wages and Profits," 
24, 84, 89, 93, 125. 
Gilbreth, F. B. — "Bricklaying 
System," 130. 
"Cost Reducing System," 8, 

35, 95, 127- 

"Motion Study," 4, 28, 134. 
Gillette, H. P.— "A. S. E. C. 
Paper No. 1," 3, in. 
"Cost Analysis Engineering," 

55- 

Gillette and Dana — "Cost Keep- 
ing and Management En- 
gineering," 3, 53, 86. 

Given man, definition of, 152. 

Going, C. B— "Methods of the 
Sante Fe," 158. _ 

Government, duty in measure- 
ment of, 120. 

Habit, importance of, 234. 
methods of instilling, 236. 
relation to standards, 235. 
relation to teaching, 235. 
Habits, necessity of forming, 
312. 
of attention, 24. 
of motions, right, 238. 
standardizing of, 164. 
under scientific management, 
321. 
Hathaway, H. K. — "Machinery," 

Nov., 1906, 84. 
Holidays, effectiveness as re- 
ward, 303. 

Idiosyncrasies, emphasis on, 50. 
lies, George — "Inventors at 

Work," 17. 
Imagination, under scientific 

management, 248. 
Imitation, use of, 256. 
Improvement, physical, 322. 
Incentives, classes of, 272. 

definition of, 271. 

direct, 275. 

importance of, 271. 

indirect, 272. 

individual, 46. 

relation to cooperation, 304. 

relation to interest, 242. 



Incentives, relation to knowl- 
edge, 304. 

relation to standards, 140. 

result on work of, 310. 

result on worker of, 310. 

under scientific management, 
279. 
Individual, as unit, 50. 

differences respected, 246. 

importance of study of, 23. 

relation to class, 49. 
Individuality, definition of, 21. 

development of, 50. 

psychological emphasis on, 22. 

recognition under scientific 
management, 27. 

recognition under transitory 
management, 26. 

relation to instruction card, 
44. 

relation to standardization, 
149- 

relation to teaching, 46. 

result upon work, 46. 

result upon worker, 47. 

status under traditional man- 
agement, 24. 
Industrial engineering, 106. 
Industrial peace, relation of 
scientific management to, 

331. 

Initiative, records of, _ 185. 
Initiative and Incentive Man- 
agement, 10. 
Inspector, duties of, 75. 
Instruction card, as teacher, 221. 

clerk, duties of, 67. 

contents of, 154. 

definition of, 153. 

educative value of, 156. 

gang, 45. 

'help to memory of, 176. 

individuality under, 44. 

language of, 157. 

relation to attention, 241. 

types of, 154. 
Interest, relation to incentives, 

242. 
Interim management, 11. 
Invention, fostered by compar- 
ing methods, 107. 



338 



INDEX 



Invention, relation to scientific 
management, 136. 
under standardization, 179. 

James, William — "Psychology," 

7- 
"Psychology, Briefer Course," 
22. 
Job, long time, provision for, 83. 
short time, provision for, 82. 
Journeymen, teaching of, 262. 
Judgment, derivation of, 250. 
result of teaching, 251. 
securing of, 240. 

Knowledge, as an incentive, 304. 
transferred under scientific 
management, 117. 

Ladd, G. T. — definition of psy- 
chology, 22. 

Le Chatelier, H. — "Discussion to 
Paper 11 19, A. S. M. E.," 
124. 

Long time job, provision for, 83. 

Loyalty, under scientific man- 
agement, 253. 

Man, first class definition of, 98, 

given, definition of, 152. 
standard, definition of, 152. 
Management, change in meaning 

of, 8. 
definition of, 6. 
driver, 10. 

good foundation of, 3. 
initiative and incentive, 10. 
interim, 11. 

Marquis of Queensbury, 10. 
military, 9. 
place of analysis and synthesis 

in, 124. 
place to start study of, 5. 
scientific, 12. 

successful, definition of, 3. 
teaching of, 3. 
three stages of, 14. 
traditional, definition of, 8.. 
traditional, preferable name 

for, 9, 11. 



transitory, II. 
types of, 8. 
ultimate, 12. 
value of study of, 2, 4. 
Manufacturers, duty toward 

measurement, 122. 
Manual training, necessity for, 

264. 
Marquis of Queensbury man- 
agement, 10. 
Measurement, cooperation of 
worker under, 116. 
definition of, 90. 
duty of government toward, 

120. 
effect upon worker of, 114. 
elimination of waste by, 115. 
importance in management, 

importance in psychology, 90. 
methods in psychology, 91. 
methods under scientific man- 
agement, 105. 
necessity for training in, 104. 
of teaching and learning, 263. 
problems in management, 94. 
relation to task of, 98. 
results to work of, 113. 
selection of units, in. 
under scientific management, 

97- 
under traditional management, 

95- 
under transitory management, 
96. 

Measured functional manage- 
ment, 12. 

Measurer, qualifications of, 99. 

Measuring devices, prevent acci- 
dents and breakdowns, 114. 

Memory, relation to scientific 
management, 245. 

Metcalfe, Henry — "Cost of Man- 
ufactures," 113, 140. 

Method of attack, standardiza- 
tion of, 172. 

Methods, benefits of comparison 
of, 107. 
introduction of new, 137. 
measurement by motion study 
and time study, 106. 



INDEX 



339 



Micro-motion study, definition 
of, 106. 
demands cooperation, 103. 
Military management, 9. 
Mind, relation of body to, 48, 

160. 
Mnemonic symbols, advantages 
of, 151. 
use of, 247. 
Motion cycles, use in teaching, 

244. 
Motions, habits of right, 238. 

teaching of right, 237. 
Motion study, aims of, no, 
definition of, 106. 
measurement by, 105. 
scope of, 108. 
Munsterburg, Hugo — "American 
Problems," 22, 30, 53, go, 
112. 

Native reactions, use of, 252, 
309. 

Object lessons, value of, 226. 
Observation, dangers of surrep- 
titious, 102. 
necessity for unbiased, 101. 
Observed worker, qualifications 

of, 103. 
Observer, qualifications of, 99. 
relation of Vocational Guid- 
ance Bureau, 101. 
One-talent men, utilized by 

scientific management, 86. 
Oral teaching, advantages of, 

241. 
Order of work clerk, duties of, 

66. 
Outputs, advantages of record- 
ing, 37- 
advantages of separating, 36. 
handling under traditional 

management, 25. 
relation to individuality, 33. 
Ownership, use of feeling of, 
259- 

Parkhurst, F. A. — "Applied 
Methods. of Scientific Man- 
agement," 181. 



Pay, subdivisions of, 288. 

use of, 286. 
Performing, separated from 

planning, 61. 
Personality, value of, 255. 
Piece work, description of, 290. 
Planning, a life study, 76. 
an epoch-making example of, 

78. 
detailed done by all under 

scientific management, 80. 
hardship to worker of indi- 
vidual, 79. 
open to all who like it, 80. 
separated from performing, 61. 
taken from all who dislike it, 

80. 
wastefulness of individual, 79. 
Planning department, work of, 

62. 
Pin plan, description of, 194. 
Premium plan, description of, 

295. . 
Pride, stimulation of, 259. 
Professional standing as an in- 
centive, 305. 
Profit-sharing, description of, 
296. 
objections to, 296. 
relation to scientific man- 
agement, 297. 
Programme, as routing, 193. 
definition of, 192. 
derived from record under 
scientific management, 203. 
relation to records, 196. 
result to work and worker of, 

IPS- 
types of, 197. 
under traditional management, 

192. 
under transitory management, 

193. 
Promotion, provision for under 

scientific management, 87, 

88. 
use of, 286. 
Psychology, aid to industries by, 

233- 
appreciation of scientific man- 
agement by, 93. 



340 



INDEX 



Psychology, definition of, i, 22. 

experimental field of, 30. 

relation to progress, 260. 

value of study of, 1, 4. 
Psychology of management, 
conclusions of, 18. 

definition of, I. 

description and outline of, 1. 

importance of, 1, 4, 15. 

outline of method of, 18. 

plan of study in, 15. 
Pugnacity, usefulness of, 259. 
Punishment, avoidance of, 308. 

classes of, 305. 

definition of, 273. 

nature of, 274. 

under traditional management, 
277. 

Quality, maintenance of, 238. 
standardization of, 171. 

Rate, necessity of maintaining, 

291. 
Reason, education of, 239. 
Recognition, individual, 324. 
Records, advantages of, 39. 

definition of, 183. 

educative value of, 190, 223. 

individual, 40. 

making by workers of, 40, 

l8 7. 
necessity for detailed, 109. 

of achievement, 187. 

of good behavior, 186. 

of initiative, 185. 

posting of, 188. 

relation to incentives, 41. 

relation to programmes, 196. 

result to work of, 188. 

result on worker of, 189. 

test of worth of, 184. 

types of, 185, 197. 

under scientific management, 

184. 
under traditional management, 

183. 
under transitory management, 

184. 
Records and programmes, result 

on work of, 206. 



Records and programmes, re- 
sult on worker of, 206. 
Repair boss, duties of, 74. 
Responsibility, under scientific 

management, 325. 
Rest, provision for, 169. 
Reward, assured, 282. 
attainability of, 284. 
benefits of positive, 281. 
definition of, 273. 
fixed, 282. 
nature of, 274. 
personal, 282. 
predetermined, 282. 
results of, 285. 
under scientific management, 

280. 
under traditional management, 

26, 275. 
under transitory management, 
279. 
Rhythm, securing of, 240. 
Route chart, description of, 194. 
Route clerk, duties of, 66. 

Schloss, David F. — "Methods of 
Industrial Remuneration," 

. 75, 289- 
Scientific management, apprecia- 
tion by psychologists of, 
93- . 

athletic contests under, 34. 

brotherhood under, 328. 

change in mental attitude un- 
der, 89. 

contentment under, 327. 

definition of, 6, 12. 

derivation of, 17. 

development of men under, 

. 8 7- 
disciplining under, 70. 
divisions of, 16. 
duties of foremen under, 64. 
emulation under, 258. 
final results of, 331. 
functionalization under, 6, 81. 
importance of teaching under, 

215. 
incentives under, 279. 
individual task under, 43. 
measurement under, 97. 



INDEX 



34i 



methods of measurement un- 
der, 105. 

opportunities in, 4. 

place of workers under, 62. 

provision for specialists un- 
der, 86. 

provides for same detailed 
planning by all, 80. 

place of analysis and synthesis 
in, 125. 

possibility of prophecy under, 

195- . 

promotion of men under, 87. 

relation of all parts of, 242. 

relation to imagination, 248. 

relation to individuality, 27. 

relation to individual records, 
42. 

relation to industrial peace, 
33i- 

relation to invention, 136. 

relation to memory, 245. 

relation to profit sharing, 297. 

relation to traditional manage- 
ment, 218. 

relation to welfare, 320. 

rewards under, 184, 280. 

results in loyalty, 253. 

selection oi workers under, 
32. 

standardization under, 147. 

stimulation of pride by, 259. 

supplements demanded by, 29. 

teaching of apprentices under, 
262. 

teaching of journeymen under, 
262. 

training of will under, 261. 

transference of knowledge un- 
der, 117. 

underlying ideas of, 16. 

use of ambition by, 258. 

use of curiosity, 255. 

use of imitation, 256. 

utilization of "all round" men 
under, 87. 

utilization of one-talent men 
by, 86. 

vocabulary, interest of, 8. 

vocabulary, poverty, 7. 

"will to do" under, 328. 



Self control, development of, 

326. 
Sense training, importance of, 
228. 
methods of, 230. 
scope of, 231. 
Short time job, provision for, 

82. 
Smith, Adam— "Wealth of Na- 
tions," 84, 179. 
Soldiering, disadvantages of, 274. 
Specialists, provision under 
scientific management for, 
86. 
Specializing, encouraged under 

scientific management, 86. 
Speed boss, duties of, 74. 
Square deal, need for, 315. 
Squareness, under scientific man- 
agement, 327. 
Standards, derivation of, 139. 
effect of, 168. 
relation to automatic response, 

239- 
relation to habit, 235. 
relation to incentive, 140, 257. 
relation to "judgment," 141. 
relation to phrasing, 158. 
relation to psychology, 142. 
relations to systems, 145. 
relation to task, 140. 
result of measurement, 147. 
"Standard amount," definition of, 

98. 
Standard clothing, 167. 
Standard man, definition of, 152. 
Standardization, definition of, 

J «39- 
develops individuality, 149. 
invention under, 180. 
of clothing, 166. 
of devices, 164. 
of equipment, 163. 
of method of attack, 172. 
of nomenclature, 151. 
of quality, 171. 
of tools, 164. 
prevention of accidents by, 

180. 
progress of, 181. 
purpose of, 143. 



342 



INDEX 



Standardization, relation to in- 
itiative, 148. 
result to work of, 173. 
result to worker of, 174. 
under scientific management, 

147. 
under traditional management, 

143- 

under transitory management, 

144. 
universality of application, 

149. 
waste eliminated by, 150. 
Stratton — "Experimental Psy- 
chology and Culture," 92, 
93, 113, 160, 169. 
Suggestion, use of, 252. 
Suggestion card, description of, 

185. 
Sully, James — "The Teacher's 
Handbook of Psychology," 
22, 23, 53, 141. 
Synthesis, definition of, 123. 
importance of selection in, 

129. 
relation to task, 130. 
Synthesist, duties of, 129. 

qualifications of, 135. 
Systems, definition of, 221. 
importance of, 144. 
incentives to follow, 214. 
inelasticity of, 214. 
relations to standards of, 145. 
teaching power of, 213. 
value in transitory manage- 
ment, 146. 

Task, advantage to name for, 

133- 

applied to work of all, 134. 

definition under scientific man- 
agement, 133. 

individual under scientific 
management, 43. 

measured by motion study and 
time study, 108. 

organization, 134. 

relation to measurement of, 
98. 

relation to standard, 140. 

result of synthesis, 130. 



under traditional management, 

25- 

unfortunate name of, 131. 
Task wage, definition of, 292. 
Task work with a bonus, 299. 
Taylor, F. W.— "A. S. M. E. 
Transactions, Vol. 28," 108. 
"A. S. M. E. Paper 11 19," 112, 

180. 
"On the Art of Cutting 

Metals," 78, 166. 
"Piece Rate System, A," 117. 
"Principles of Scientific Man- 
agement," 4, 10, 15, 18, 62. 
"Shop Management," 7, 9, 26, 
54. 55, 63, 94, 95, 108, 117, 
164, 165. 
Taylor and Thompson — "Con- 
crete Plain and Reinforced," 
123. 
Teaching, availability of, 227 
equipment of, 225. 
functional foreman as, 224. 
training of, 224. 
Teaching, availability of, 227/ 
by motion cycles, 244. 
definition of, 208. 
devices of, 222. 
future of, 268. 
involved in functional fore- 

manship, 64. 
measurement of, 263. 
methods of, 220. 
need of, 219. 
of right motions, 237. 
of untrained worked, 232. 
oral, 223, 241. 
psychological basis of, 228. 
relation to habit, 235. 
relation to individuality, 46. 
results in judgment, 251. 
results to work of, 266. 
results to worker of, 266. 
scope of, 219. 
sources of, 220. 
under scientific management, 

215. 
under traditional management* 

25, 208. 
under transitory management, 
213. 



INDEX 



343 



Three Rate with Increased Rate, 

description of, 300. 
Time and Cost clerk, duties of, 

68. 
Time study, aims of, no. 

definition of, 106. 

importance to worker of, 121. 

measurement by, 105. 

scope of, 108. 
"Tolerance," provision for, 172. 
Tools, standard, need for, 164. 
Towne, H. R. — "Introduction to 
Scientific Management," 12. 
Traditional management, defini- 
tion of, 8, n. 

disciplining under, 69. 

functionalization under, 54. 

handling of output under, 25. 

measurement under, 95. 

place of analysis and synthesis 
in, 124. 

position of workers under, 60. 

preferable name for, 9. 

programme under, 192. 

punishment under, 277. 

records under, 183. 

reward under, 26, 275. 

selecting workers under, 24. 

standardization under, 143. 

tasks under, 25. 

teaching under, 25, 208. 

treatment of individuality, 24. 

welfare under, 311, 317. 
Transitory management, func- 
tionalization under, 61. 

measurement under, 96. 

place of analysis and synthesis 
in, 125. 

programmes under, 193. 

recognition of individuality, 
26. 

records under, 184, 185. 

reward under, 279. 

standardization under, 144. 

teaching under, 213. 

value of systems in, 146. 

welfare under, 318. 

Ultimate management, 12. 
U. S. Bulletin of Agriculture, 
No. 208, 108. 



Units of measurement, selection 

of, III. 

Vocabulary, importance of scien- 
tific management, 7. 
Vocational guidance, duties of, 
265. 
relation to teaching, 264. 
Vocational guidance bureau, 
training of observers by, 
101. 
work of, 29. 

Wages, definition of, 288. 
Waste, eliminated by measure- 
ment, 115. 
eliminated by standardization, 
150. 
Welfare, definition of, 311. 
individual, 46. 

relation to traditional manage- 
ment, 311. 
relation to transitory manage- 
ment, 318. 
result to work of, 330. 
result on worker of, 330. 
under scientific management, 
320. 
Welfare work, relation to scien- 
tific management, 329. 
under traditional management, 
317- 
White List File, description of, 

186. 
Will, development of, 316. 
education of, 239. 
training of, 261. 
Will to do, under scientific man- 
agement, 328. 
Work, effect of analysis and 
synthesis on, 138. 
effect of functionalization up- 
on, 83. 
necessity for regularity in, 321. 
result of incentives to, 310. 
result of individuality upon, 

46. 
results of measurement on, 

113. , 
result of programme on, 195. 
result of records on, 188, 206. 



344 



INDEX 



Work, result of standardization 
on, 173. 

results of teaching on, 266. 

result of welfare on, 330. 
Worker, advantages of func- 
tionalization to, 76. 

appreciation of time study by, 
121. 

capacity of, 94. 

change in mental attitude un- 
der scientific management, 
89. 

cooperation under measure- 
ment of, 116. 

development through records, 

39- 

effect of analysis and synthesis 
on, 138. 

effect of functionalization up- 
on, 85. 

effect of measurement upon, 

. n 4- 
given planning if he likes it, 

80. 
hardship of individual planning 

to, 79. 
making of records by, 40. 
observed, qualifications of, 

103. 
observed, securing cooperation 

of, 102. 



place under scientific manage- 
ment, 62. 

position under traditional man- 
agement, 6b. 

records made by, 187. 

relation to process of analysis, 
129. 

relation to standardization, 
164. 

relieved of planning if he dis- 
likes it, 80. 
rest periods for, 169. 

result of incentives on, 310. 

result of individuality upon, 
47- 

result of programme on, 195, 
206. 

result of records to, 189, 206. 

results of standardization to, 
174- 

results of teaching on, 266. 

result of welfare on, 330. 

rewards of, 285. 

selection under scientific man- 
agement, 32. 

selection under traditional 
management, 24. 

untrained, teaching of, 232. 

variables of, 28. 
Working models, value of, 226. 



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